A

ABUSE: (Latin abuti 'to waste'). 1. the intentional or unintentional misuse of substances, drugs, equipment, programs and so forth 2. to physically or verbally attack or maltreat another; for example, an abused person is an individual who has been harmed by another person or situation. (See CHILD ABUSE; DRUG ABUSE; ELDER ABUSE). (IP)
ABUSE OF THE ELDERLY : See ELDER ABUSE.

ACCELERATING PACE OF CHANGE: Technological innovation, computing power, information in scientific journals, global population, environmental change and many other aspects of modern life are undergoing rapid if not exponential increases. This rate of scientific and technological change is increasing human opportunity but also social and environmental risk. We have become used to this acceleration of history, as surprising technological advances become commonplace news items. However, many of these changes are driven by corporate motivations and are often already developed before their full ethical consequences can be properly debated. Each technological advance is progressive from the previous technologies, so there is a certain "spike" in the future beyond which prediction may be impossible.   (See TECHNOLOGY, MOORE’S LAW, FUTUROLOGY, CHANGE) (MP)
ACCEPTANCE : See PUBLIC ACCEPTANCE.

ACCIDENT :  Accidents are usually thought of as any events which were not in tended. Some accidents, like auto accidents, are bad.  Others, like accidentally finding a treasure trove of gold, are good accidents. Another kind of accident would be an event which  unpredictable. By "unpredictable" is not meant "hard to predict", or " i mpossible to forsee given current knowledge or methods".  What is meant is an event which even God, or someone with perfect knowledge of all  preconditions and scientific laws, would not have been able to  predict. Some people think that events of the kin d which are studied in mathematical theories of chaos are accidental in this sense.  But they are not, because chaotic systems are perfectly  deterministic and predictable by means of mathematical functions.  These functions are "non-linear", however. Whet h er or not an event is "accidental" is probably only a  function of our ignorance. If we know the causes of an event, we say that it was determined.  If we are ignorant of the causes, we call it "accidental".(FL)

ACCOUNTABLE: Emphasized liability for something of value either contractually or because of one’s position of responsibility (see ACCOUNTABILITY, RESPONSIBLE) (IP)
ACCOUNTABILITY : Responsibility for explaining or justifying one's conduct to the public or to one's superiors. Social responsibility includes the obligations of an individual or institution to society. (see RESPONSIBLE) (DM)
ACCURACY: 1. correctness; 2. the extent to which a measurement is close to the actual value of a quantity being measured. Accuracy is the correctness of a measurement compared to the actually existing value or standard. In mathematics the accuracy of a number is expressed by its number of decimal places or of significant digits (e.g. 3.14 is accurate to 3 significant digits). (See PRECISION) (MP+RW)

ACETYLCHOLINE (ACh) : a major and widely distributed peripheral and brain neurotransmitter. ACh, first synthesized in 1867, is a cholinergic neurotransmitter with the primary function mediating synaptic activity of the nervous system and skeletal muscles. ACh is rapidly degraded by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) which prevents accumulation of the neurotransmitter. Naturally occurring ACh agonists include pilocarpine, muscarine (mushrooms) and arecoline (betel nuts). Symptoms of intoxication include salivation, nausea, vomiting, headache, visual disturbances, diarrhea, decreased heart rate and blood pressure, shock and possibly death. The best known antagonist is atropine but there is also scopolamine and related belladonna alkaloids, which are found in plants such as deadly nightshade. The ACh antagonists cause dryness of the mouth, increased heart rate, dilated pupils, difficulty swallowing, atazia, restlessness, hallucinations and coma. A number of insecticides and nerve gases block AChE which results in elevated levels of ACh that can be fatal; hence the use of atropine to contract these effects. (See Brain Neurotransmitters; TOXICOLOGY; DOPAMINE; POISON HEMLOCK ). (SG2)

ACF: Australian Conservation Foundation.
ACGT: UK Advisory Committee on Genetic Testing, United Kingdom. It terms of reference are (1) to provide advice to Ministers on developments in testing for genetic disorders; (2) to advise on testing individuals for genetic disorders taking account of ethical, social and scientific aspects; and (3) to establish requirements, especially in respect of efficacy and product information, to be met by manufacturers and suppliers of genetic tests. (JA)
ACHIEVEMENT: The successful completion of tasks, plans and responsibilities, or other accomplishments whether from inspiration, heroism or hard work. Achievements may be assigned by the self or motivated by a teacher, and the goals realized may be personal or professional. The achievements of people are commonly compared by society using age-related tests in school, and experience-related tests in the workplace. (MP)
ACID : 1. A compound that yields hydrogen ions (H ⁺ ) when dissociated in solution, reacts with bases to form salts and tastes sour due to its low pH value 2. Street slang for the hallucinogenic mood-altering drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), for example, " to drop acid" meaning to take LSD. (See ACID SOILS, LSD). (IP+MP)

ACNFP : Advisory Committee on Novel Foods and Processes of GM Food.

ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCY SYNDROME : see AIDS.

ACT : Advanced Cell Technology is a biotechnology organization and is located in Massachusetts in USA. (JA).

ACT CONSEQUENTIALISM: See UTILITARIANISM.
ACT OF GOD : See ACT OF NATURE.
ACT OF NATURE : a misadventure or casualty which is said to be caused by an 'Act of God'; that is, occasioned exclusively by forces of nature without the intervention of any human agency. An act of nature may be any accident produced by any physical force such as lighting strikes, tempests, perils of the seas, tornados, earthquakes etc. (See ACT OF PROVIDENCE). (IP)
ACT OF PARLIAMENT : a statute or law made by the sovereign with the advice and consent of those assembled in parliament. Acts of parliament form the written laws of the nation and are of three kinds: public, local or special, private or personal. The validity of a statute cannot be questioned in court. (IP)
ACT OF PROVIDENCE : an uncontrollable accident against which ordinary experience or foresight could not guard. (See ACT OF NATURE). (IP)
ACT UTILITARIANISM: See UTILITARIANISM.
ACTIVE EUGENICS See EUGENICS.
ACTIVE EUTHANASIA: See EUTHANASIA.

ACTIVISM: Self-initiated action and activity towards an ideological, political or environmental cause. Democratic countries encourage freedom of expression, and ‘protest’ may include petitions, public marches, civil disobedience and media attention. ‘Direct action’ is action outside the normal procedural system. There is opportunity for official activism from within charities, non-profit and non-government organizations. Workers’ activism may include mass refusals to work - the strike or industrial action. Creatively attracting the media to an issue is one method used by social and environmenten change destructive practices once exposed to the camera spotlight. Appropriating the power of media to a cause has been called ‘culture jamming’. The internet has created a forum for uncontrolled discussion and organization of activism, as well as the online vandalism of ‘hacktivism’. Sometimet activism undermines the cause and is sometimes branded ‘ecoterrorism’. Quite the RESISTANCE,NATIVE PARADIGM) (MP)

ACTIVITY ANOREXIA: See ANOREXIA ATHLETICA.
ACUPUNCTURE: A Chinese traditional system of healing. This system treats various ailments by means of inserting small needles into the skin briefly at specific locations. These locations are known as "acupuncture points", and groups of these points are classed together in "meridians", of which there are twelve major ones. The system of acupuncture is popular in East Asia, and in recent decades has gained prominence in the West as well, as a method of controlling pain. The theory behind acupuncture is quite complex, involving the interaction of different organs with the Five Elements (see FIVE ELEMENTS) and with Yin and Yang (see YIN AND YANG). The central texts on acupuncture are written in classical Chinese, although some texts have been translated. (AG)

ADA : American Disability Act of 1990 which prohibits discrimination in the workplace against a handicapped person who is otherwise qualified. The act came into effect from 1992. (JA).

ADA DEFICIENCY : Adenosime deaminase deficiency is a rare genetic disease that is caused by lack of functional adenosine deaminase enzyme, that causes an immunodeficiency disease. In 1990 it was the target disease of the first attempts at human gene therapy, and has been one of the few genetic diseases claimed to be cured by gene therapy (2001). (See HUMAN GENE THERAPY) (DM)
ADAM AND EVE : See GENESIS and ORIGINAL SIN.
ADAPT: (Latin: adaptâre ‘to fit to’) The adjustment of behaviour, form or function as a result of changes in the surrounding environment or circumstances. For something to adapt, it must change or modify to suit a different purpose. Biology adapts during evolution, technology adapts to modernity, but most importantly for ethics, belief systems and human behaviours must adapt to suit an increasingly crowded and limited Earth. (See ADAPTATION, ADAPTIVE THINKING, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT, HUMAN EXTINCTION). (MP)
ADAPTABILITY : The ability to adjust with changes in circumstances is an important attribute for effective learning, personality development, planning, management, marketing, development and technological implementation. (See ADAPTIVE THINKING) (MP)
ADAPTATION : 1. in evolutionary biology a particular structure, physiological process or behavior that provides an organism with an advantage to better survive and reproduce; 2. the evolutionary process which leads to the development or modification of an existing structure or function in response to a changed environment; 3. the physiological response of sensory receptor organs (vision, touch, temperature, olfaction, audition and pain) to stimuli from the continually changing environment; 4. the conscious or unconscious modification of an individual adjusting to changing social and cultural surroundings. (IP)
ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT: Adaptive management is handling, direction and control, which is responsive to changing circumstances. Ecological, sociopolitical and corporate management strategies are most effective when easily adapted and modified to accommodate changed environments, superior information or new motivations. This is a continuous dynamic process involving environmental and economic monitoring and assessment. Elements associated with adaptive management include: the collection and incorporation of new information, evidence-based management, adaptive modification of plans and strategies, the precautionary principle, strategic environmental assessment, environmental impact assessment, mitigation and contingency planning, taking opportunities rather than waiting for them, learning from the mistakes of others as well as your own, openness to innovation and responsiveness to critical input into the process. (See ADAPT, ADAPTIVE THINKING, STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT, PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE) (MP)
ADAPTIVE RADIATION : The evolutionary divergence of a lineage of organisms into different phenotypes. (See RADIATION, EVOLUTION, NATURAL SELECTION) (MP)
ADAPTIVE THINKING: The ability to change one’s mind on the basis of newcertainty, is able to say 'I don't know', and is willing to revise beliefs and opinions. (See ADAPT, ADAPTATION, ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT) (MP)
ADD: See ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
ADDICTION: (Latin: addicere ‘to devote’) Compulsive, uncontrollable dependence on a substance, habit or practice to such a degree that cessation causes severe emotional and/or physical responses; however, the term is most often used in the context of drug addiction. Because drug addiction is a difficult concept to define, a WHO expert committee in 1970 substituted the words "drug dependence" which is characterized by psychological symptoms such as craving and a compulsion to take the drug on a continuous or periodic basis, with serious emotional and physical side-effects developing when the drug is withheld. The drugs of major concern (all causing physical and/or psychological symptoms of dependence) are alcohol, nicotine, the opiates, the sedatives particularly barbiturates, stimulants such as cocaine and the amphetamines, the hallucinogens like mescaline and lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), and cannabis also known as marijuana, pot, dope or hashish. Although government concern centers primarily on illegal drug abuse such as heroin, the adverse effects of these is relatively small in comparison with the very large number of people dependent on alcohol and tobacco. Furthermore, few addicts confine their intake to a single substance, and synergistic interactions are often many times more hazardous than the additive effects would indicate. Dopamine is the messenger of the brain’s reward systems and has been dubbed the courier of addiction because many paths of pleasure in the brain employ dopamine messengers in their reinforcement. Mine in the brain and stimulate this reward system. For example, the "buzz" described by those taking amphetamines (better known as speed), or the "rush" of snf the sudden increase of brain dopamine activity that these drugs stimulate. Consequently, it is not entirely by accident that the ingenious human species hasts - often with pain and illness to themselves and their offspring as a result - of the natural intoxicants like alcohol, tobacco, opium and cocaine. Thereforponsibility and intelligent realism when it comes to caring for oneself, and if that fails judicious pharmacological intervention plus a program of self-educaand prevention (Latin addicere to devote) (see FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME; DRUG TOLERANCE; INDIVIDUAL DRUG ENTRIES; INTERNET ADDICTION; GAMBLING ADDICTION). (IP)
ADENINE : Commonly abbreviated as A, one of four nitrogen containing bases in nucleotides, a component of DNA and RNA. (JA)
ADENOSINE DEAMINASE DEFICIENCY: See ADA DEFICIENCY.
ADHD: See ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
ADOLESCENCE: the period between childhood and adulthood when, typically, dependence and immaturity are replaced by independence and maturity. In the USA it is the age designation for humans 13-18 years old. Adolescence is a time of emotional fluctuation and vulnerability due to the biological effects of rising sex hormone secretion and heightened libido. It may be a time of identity crisis, changing body image, experimentation with sex roles and sexuality (see PUBERTY). (IP, DM)
ADOPTION : The bringing of someone into a relationship that (s)he did not previously enjoy. Normally used to refer to the taking into a family of a baby or young person. Such adoptees generally have the legal privileges of natural daughters and sons. Refers to the integration of a child, born to another couple, into a family who decides to take care, educate and give love to this child. Law rules strictly the qualifications needed for adoption; usually, it is requested that the couple be composed by father and mother, but in some occasions, a single mother or father is also allowed to adopt. Third world countries bestow an elevated number of children for adoption to couples from wealthy countries. Usually, children for adoption have been previously abandoned or given to special institutions for this purpose. In most cases, these children are born to single women, whose economical situation does not allow them to raise a child, or are the outcome of rape. Unmarried pregnant young women in particular families are also sometimes forced by these to give their baby away for adoption. Since abortion is prohibited in most of these countries, they all have in the majority of cases no other way to solve the problem. Many hundreds of children around the world are adopted per year, but still many more remain in institutions awaiting for someone to give them a better life. In some countries, like Japan, adoption of older persons occurs. (MR+GK)
ADRENAL GLANDS : Paired organs situated on top of each kidney. Each adrenal gland is in fact two separate glands: a) the adrenal cortex (the outer portion) which synthesizes three principal classes of hormones - the glucocorticoids such as cortisol (implicated in stress physiology), the mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone (implicated in ionic balance of body fluids) and smaller amounts of sex hormones such as androgens and estrogens and b) the adrenal medulla (the inner portion) which consists of sympathetic neurons that secrete adrenaline and noradrenaline facilitating the alarm reaction of the General Adaptation Syndrome. (See ADRENALINE; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME; HOMEOSTASIS). (IP)
ADRENALINE : (Latin ad 'at' + ren 'kidney') Also known as epinephrine, is the 'fight-or-flight' hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla and affecting circulation, muscular action and general arousal. It also acts as a catecholamine neurotransmitter and provides the reaction sought after by the so called "adrenaline junkies". (See ADRENALINE JUNKIES; GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME; ADRENAL GLANDS). (IP+MP)
ADRENALINE JUNKIE: A person who habitually engages in risk-taking behavior such as extreme sports, due to a more than usual enjoyment in the associated releases of adrenaline or related hormones and neurotransmitters. (See ADRENALINE, JUNKIE) (MP)
ADULTS : Important for definition in relation to consent. Varies between countries. In the USA it is the age designation for humans 19-64 years old, with those 65 years and older being referred to as the aged. For bioethics purposes those persons 18 years and older are given legal competence in most countries. (See CONSENT). (DM).
ADULTERY: voluntary sexual intercourse between a married person and any other than the lawful spouse. In many countries adultery has been the principal ground for divorce and in earlier periods was even punishable by death, but despite legal and cultural prohibitions adultery has persisted throughout history. Various published surveys originating in the west have indicate that at least 50% of married men and women admit to having sexual intercourse after marriage with a person other than their spouse. From the biological perspective, the practice may represent a subconscious desire to outbreed and gain fitness by increased genetic diversity. (See SPERM COMPETITION, MARRIAGE, OPEN MARRIAGE, SWINGING, MISTRESS, CONCUBINE, COURTESAN, CUCKOLD, DIVORCE). (IP)
ADVANCE DIRECTIVES : Declarations by patients, made in advance of a situation in which they may be incompetent or unable to decide about their own care, stating their treatment preferences or authorizing a third party to make decisions for them. These include various documents including Durable power of attorney, Living wills, Psychiatric wills, Donor cards. (See also LIVING WILL, RIGHT TO DIE, EUTHANASIA). (DM+IP)

ADVERSARIAL SYSTEM: A system or process which relies on two or more opposing sides to resolve conflict and make decisions. Adversarial government systems and legal process may engender conflict, bickering and ‘zero-sum’ bitternl iterations and destructive criticism of theories are the backbone of progress in science. (See COLLABORATION, TEAMWORK, CONFLICT RESOLUTION, GAME THEORY) (MP)
ADVERSE EFFECT : a clinical or perceived undesired effect of a chemical or physical agent. (SG2)

ADVISORY COMMITTEES : Committees or commissions set up to advise governmental bodies or other institutions on public policy . (See also ETHICS COMMITTEES , REVIEW COMMITTEES). (DM)
ADVISORY COMMITTEE ON GENETIC TESTING : See ACGT (UK).
AEROBE: (Greek: aer 'air') Any microorganism that lives and grows on free oxygen (Greek: aer air + bios life). (See ANAEROBE). (IP)
AEROBIC: Pertaining to the presence of air or oxygen, or requiring oxygen for the maintenance of life (Greek aer air) (see AEROBIC EXERCISE, ANAEROBIC). (IP)
AEROBIC EXERCISE : any physical exercise which requires additional effort by the heart and lungs to meet the increased respiratory demand for oxygen. The activity is beneficial for all body components and it is significant to note that physical activity need not consist of an organized exercise program because simple pleasures, such as bush walking, gardening and other homely physical activities, also burn off excess calories which, if unused, turn to fat. Regular gentle aerobic exercise is important in pregnancy, however, since pregnancy requires a high degree of reflex coordination high impact sports needing a good sense of balance; such as water and snow skiing, diving, ice skating and riding, should be avoided. (See ANAEROBIC EXERCISE). (IP)
AEROBICS : See AEROBIC EXERCISE.
AEROSOLS: are small particulates both natural and synthetic which are potentially of great importance climatically. The general trend suggests that they are increasing over the globe, particularly over industrial regions of the Northern Hemisphere where they reduce solar radiation reaching the surface of the Earth. The colloquial epithet "aerosol abuse" has been used to highlight harm caused from industrial aerosols by the environmentally irresponsible (see NUCLEAR WINTER). (IP)
AESTHETICS : The appreciation of beauty and appearance. (DM)

AFFECT: A transitive verb meaning to influence (act on, move, impress) to produce change in something (e.g. in a system, disease, person). To affect is to produce an effect. (See CAUSATION, EFFECT) (MP)
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION: The positive treatment of minority groups. Some say that positive discrimination is still discrimination, but affirmative action helps rebuild bridges of opportunity, and is a form of acknowledgement for past wrongs and the legacies of slavery, Colonialism and the dispossession of indigenous people. Examples of affirmative action include the Affirmative Action (Equal Employment Opportunity for Women) Act (Australia), Indigenous land management, educational privileges, healthcare assistance and social welfare assistance. (See MINORITY GROUPS, ACTIVISM) (MP)

AFLOTOXINS: Fungal toxins, Aspergillus flavus , of peanut, corn toxins have carcinogenic substances. (JA)
AFRO-AMERICAN : This term is used to designate the African descendants born in the United States of America. It has replaced the terms of "colored" or "black", which had a racist connotation. The word also vindicates the cultural relationship of these American descendants with the African cultures. Afro-American is also used in a broad sense to designate the Afro-descendants of all America, North, Central and South. (GK)
AFRO-COLOMBIAN, AFRO-BRAZILIAN : In those countries of South America, where a considerable part of the population descend from African immigrants, these people recognize themselves as Afro-Colombians of Afro-Brazilians. Many cultural traits have survived admixture and imposition of the dominant European culture. This is particularly true in music, dance, funerary rituals, marriage, extended families, etc. In Colombia, some of these groups have even maintained a Bantu related language, a pidgin language called "palenquero". (GK)
AGAPE: In the Greek language, three verbs can be used for the English word love, namely eros, phileo and agapao. These there verbs mean sensual love, brotherly love and self-giving love respectively. Agape love indicates the supreme and a nobler form of love, as seen in the sacrificial death of the Lord Jesus Christ on the cross for all human sin. Both Jews and Gentiles have a practice of fellowship and brotherhood means. The name agape can also indicate such fellowship meal. (JA)
AGE : Age factors are used when age is discussed as in relation to a subject or problem example, age of consent, or age related quality of life.

AGE DISTRIBUTION: The demography of the comparative ages of individuals in a population, commonly graphed as a ‘population pyramid’. In developed countries with fewer children there is occurring a ‘graying’ of the population, whereas many less developed countries have the reverse, a ‘youth bulge’. Age distrT, LIFE CYCLE) (MP)
AGE OF CONSENT: The age at which consenting sexual intercourse becomes legal, commonly at 16 years. More broadly, also the ages at which other rights of adults are conferred onto kids, such as driving, drinking alcohol and voting. (See ADULTS, CONSENT) (MP)
AGE/SEX PYRAMID: The Age/Sex Pyramid is a frequency distribution histogram displaying population composition according to age group (vertical scale) and gender (left/right), useful for illustrating age-specific birth, death, disease, fertility rates etc. (See AGE DISTRIBUTION) (MP)

AGED : In the USA this is the age designation for humans 65 years or older. Many persons in modern society live into advanced age, so the definition of 65 years or older may not be ethically relevant. Homes for the aged, pension schemes, senile dementia, and ageism (age-related discrimination in access to health care or other social services) are important issues. (See QUALITY OF LIFE). (DM)
AGENDA 21: An environmental, social and economic action plan for the 21 ^st Century based upon principles of sustainable development. Agenda 21 was arranged and approved by many countries during the Rio de Janeiro United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED 1992). Although it suffers from negotiated compromise and is not legally binding, it is nevertheless an ambitious first international attempt to reconcile development and environment issues. (See EARTH SUMMIT, CONVENTION OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT). (MP)
AGENT ORANGE : the U.S. military code name of a mixture of herbicides used as a defoliant agent in Southeast Asia to deny communist soldiers jungle cover during the 1960s war in Vietnam. It is claimed that exposure to this agent is a cause of generations of birth defects and other inherited ailments including cancer, neuropathy and a variety of chronic diseases, however, confirmation of any such linkage would take decades of further research; thus, compensation demands from Hanoi and U.S. veterans are easily dismissed. Spraying was halted in 1971 when it was discovered that Agent Orange was contaminated with the highly toxic chemical dioxin, which is capable of harming human and animal health and has well-established multigenerational adverse health effects. Despite uncertainty as to the long-term effects of the wartime defoliant, there is the view that Washington and Agent Orange manufacturers, Dow Chemical Co. and Monsanto Co., have a moral duty to compensate Vietnamese who have suffered from exposure. (See VIETNAM WAR, DIOXIN). (IP)
AGGRESSION: Hostile or malicious actions or behavior; the act of violating by force the rights of another individual or group, including territorial rights. Aggressive behavior may have a genetic component, however it is likely to be predominantly a learned response in humans, precipitated by environmental variables such as periods of stress. Males have a higher incidence of fighting, crime, verbal aggression and fantasy aggression, although females will aggressively protect their young. Human aggression can be reduced by a nurturing environment of social responsibility from a young age. (see AGGRESSOR NATION, DESENSITIZATION, VIOLENT MEDIA, WARFARE). (MP)
AGGRESSOR NATION: The nation state which attacks, initiates or first declares a situation of warfare with another nation. Although it may sometimes be difficult, due to historical and social circumstances or wartime propaganda, the decisive determination of who was the aggressor nation can be a useful step in ethical conflict resolution, mediation and peace enforcement. (See INSTITUTION OF WAR, PEACE ENFORCEMENT) (MP)
AGRICULTURE Cultivation of crops and domestication of farm animals. Seems to have happened independently around 10 000 to 8000 BCE in the Middle East, the Orient and the Americas. Involves four processes: (1) Breeding of animals or sowing of seeds; (2) Caring for the animals or plants; (3) Collecting produce (e.g. harvesting, milking, slaughtering); (4) Selecting and keeping back some of the produce for the next generation. (MR)
AGING : A natural biological process beginning soon after birth, and ending with death. In most ancient cultures, youngsters honored aged persons, seen as experienced, wise people. Still sometimes in aboriginal groups, one of the old men or women is chosen as the shaman, and given the religious, medical and political leadership of the whole community. Today, aging is seen in western countries as a fatal issue of life, and many hope that, with ongoing progress of biomedical sciences, its happening will be thrown back many years. Also, due to better life conditions and health care programs, people get older than decades before. In both cases, a high input of money and human endeavor is needed to give aging people an adequate life quality. Ethical considerations must balance the justification of these efforts face to other more poignant problems of humanity, as is famine, misery, war mutilations, basic health care, etc. (GK)
AGNOSTIC: (Greek: agnostos 'unknown') Holding the belief that because nothing is known about the existence of God there is the need to keeps an open mind beyond physical/ biological phenomena. The Victorian biologist and philosopher T.H. Huxley coined the term stating that in his opinion the laws of Nature could quite satisfactorily explain all natural phenomena and could not find a logical need for the existence of God. [Greek agnostos unknown] (IP)
AGRICULTURAL ETHICS : The study of the ethical issues associated by agriculture, aquaculture and fishing. May also include forestry in common discussions, e.g. the Ethics in Food and Agriculture program on FAO (www.fao.org). There are numerous topics discussed in the use of agriculture, and some are reflected in documents relating to agriculture, including the debates over the use of animals, the concept of quality of life for animals, the concept of Maximum Sustainable Yield in fishing, the Land Charter, Peasant's Charter, the Pesticide Convention, and access to, and conservation of, genetic resources, for example. (DM)
AGRICULTURE : The planned cultivation and/or nurture of living organisms to provide food or other products, e.g. wool, cotton. Often also called farming. Origins are unsure, but commonly considered to be seen in the past ten thousand years of human culture. There are possible signs of agriculture in humans over the past hundred thousand years. Some agriculture is seen in other species as well, at much earlier points in history. (DM)
AGROBACTERIUM: (Agro = soil) Agrobacterium tumefaciens a common soil bacteria that can naturally carry genetic information (DNA) into plant cells by infecting wound sites on plant stems (JA)
AGRO-BIOTECHNOLOGY: The application of biotechnology to agriculture, such as the use of modern recombinant DNA technology in plant breeding programs to increase crop yield or disease resistance. In addition to creating genetically modified novel crop varieties, agro-biotechnology is also used by conservationists to maintain a viable global supply of germ plasm in order to safeguard future genetic diversity and a continuing crop inventory. (see AGROTECHNOLOGY, GENETIC ENGINEERING) (MP & IP)
AGROFORESTRY: (Agronomy + Forestry) A farming practice which integrates timber plantation with agricultural production on the same area of land. The combination of trees with crops not only provides a diversification of produce, but also provides habitat and protection from soil erosion and salinity. (See PERMACULTURE, TREE PLANTING). (MP)
AGRONOMICS: The economics of agronomy, for example the productivity of cultivation practices or the trade and distribution of agricultural products. (MP)
AGRONOMY: The science of agricultural cultivation, land and soil management, and the production of crops. (See AGRICULTURE) (MP)
AGROTECHNOLOGY: (Agronomy + technology) The application of science-based technology to agricultural production; the technological means by which humans exploit farm ecosystems, artificially eliminating natural species competition and manipulating the system to increase its yield of products of high value to humans. Examples include modern agricultural equipment such as hydroponics, agri-business such as large government-financed breeding programs, and agro-biotechnology such as genetically modified crops. (See AGRO-BIOTECHNOLOGY, AGRICULTURE). (IP & MP)
AHIMSA: The South Asian cultural ideal of being non violent. Mahatma Gandhi used the principle of non violence in his struggle for freedom from foreign occupation of India. (JA)
AI: See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION or ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE.
AID: Artificial insemination using donor sperm (see ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION).
AIDS: acronym for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome - the clinical end stage of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection which results in severe, irreversible immune suppression. After sufficient immune system damage has occurred, the individual becomes susceptible to infection by many opportunistic diseases including cancers. These opportunistic diseases then become the indirect markers of AIDS; thus, AIDS is a syndrome or collection of many diseases resulting from HIV infection. The conditions was first noticed by doctors in the 1970s and formally described under the name acquired immune deficiency state in 1980. At first AIDS was identified as principally affecting two groups: drug users who shared needles and male homosexuals but now it’s principally spread by the heterosexual community and bisexual males, and can be passed through the placenta and breast milk to the children of thosets and kills CD4+ lymphocytes (T helper cells) weakening the immune system’s ability to fight infection. HIV may also invade macrophages and brain cecourse, semen and contaminated blood. All semen donors are initially testeill within the incubation period), before the donor product may be used in any IVF clinic.
 A patient may be diagnosed as having AIDS if infected with HIV virus and a CD4+ count below 200-500 cells per milliliter of blood. Low cell count is usually accompanied by symptoms of extreme fatigue, intermittent fever, night sweats, chills, lymphadenopathy, enlarged spleen, severe diarrhea and weight loss, apathy and depression. Treatment consists primarily of combined chemotherapy, such as the antiviral drug AZT, to counteract the opportunistic infections but no cure has yet been found. Public awareness and sex education, particularly of adolescents, must remain a high priority. (See SYPHILIS). (DM+IP)
AIDS SERODIAGNOSIS : Immunologic tests for the identification of HIV (HTLV-III/LAV) antibodies; includes assays for HIVseropositivity and seronegativity which have been developed for detecting persons carrying the viral antibody. (DM+)
AIH: See ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION BY HUSBAND.
AIR POLLUTION : Gases, liquids and solids which, when added to the normal composition of the atmosphere, may be hazardous to biology, ecology or human health. Processes leading to pollution of the atmosphere include attrition, vaporization and combustion. Types and sources of air pollution include photochemical smog, transportation exhausts, incinerator emissions, forest fire smoke, industrial discharges, greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, CFCs etc.), suspended particulates, oxides of carbon and sulfur, inorganic and organic acids, toxic chemicals, trace elements, irritants and odors. Grit is sharp particulate matter such as dust which may cause skin and eye irritation. Grime is accumulated soot or dirt which adheres to a person or cityscape. Airborne particles may adsorb corrosive chemicals leading to the erosion of infrastructure and monuments. Air pollution epidemics are a recurring health problem in many major urban centers. Monitoring and regulation are beginning to improve in the developed world, with air pollution meteorology and models becoming more common in weather forecasts. Emissions may be controlled or reduced by absorption, adsorption, mechanical collection, air pollutant incineration, catalytic conversion, electrostatic precipitation, fabric filters, wet collectors, mechanical cyclones, smokestack scrubbers and other pollution control devices - often legally regulated but also self-initiated by visionary companies. (See POLLUTION, WATER POLLUTION, ATMOSPHERE, GREENHOUSE GASES, ACID RAIN) (MP)
AKIDO vs UESHIBA, MORIHEI: A Japanese martial art, based on ancient tradition derived from the Samurai. But while Japanese martial arts formerly combined both violent and peaceful aspects, Aikido is one of those arts which, after World War II, has been emphasizing the peaceful, seeing martial techniques as ways of discouraging a violent attacker without hurting him or her seriously, eventually leading to love and peace. It is for these reasons that martial arts can be important to bioethics. (FL)
ALCOHOL: (Arabic: alkohl 'subtle essence') A clear water miscible organic substance obtained by fermentation with one or more hydroxyl (OH ^- ) groups; but in common parlance refers to the ethyl alcohol or spirit contained in any beverage such as wine or liquor. [Arab alkohl subtle essence] (see ALCOHOLISM; ETHYL ALCOHOL ; FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME). (IP)
ALCOHOLISM: severe dependency on alcohol intake associated with cumulative destructive physical, reproductive and behavioral effects. The most serious medical consequences are central nervous system deterioration, liver cirrhosis and adverse reproductive effects. Alcohol abuse is the overuse of alcohol to the extent of habituation, dependence, or addiction (see ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA); FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME). (IP, DM)
ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS (AA): an international nonprofit organization, founded in 1935, made up of members whose purpose is to stay sober and help others to recover from the disease of alcoholism. The AA program guides members through a 12-step plan aimed at overcoming alcohol addiction through abstinence, group support, shared experiences and faith. (IP)
ALDRIN : A dangerous chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide, one of the 'dirty dozen' persistent organic pollutants. (See PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS) (MP)
ALEXITHYMIA: lack of emotionality or an inability to consciously experience and communicate feelings (see AXIODRAMA, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE). (IP)
ALGAE: (Latin: alga "seaweed") A wide diversity of chiefly aquatic organisms comprising the seaweeds and various freshwater forms varying in appearance and size from single celled phytoplankton to multicellular macroalgae such as kelps. They are the Earth’s dominant autotrophs supplying 50-60% of all photosynthesis on Earth (see AUTOTROPH, LICHENS). (MP & IP)
ALGAL BLOOM: A suffocating build-up of rapidly multiplying algae and bacteria, occurring in phosphorus enriched waterways caused by run-off sewage, fertilizers and the processes of eutrophication. The resulting increased biological activity transforms the water-mass green or red with large-scale decomposition rendering the habitat malodorous and toxic. Since all available oxygen is utilized by the bloom, anaerobic organisms begin to dominate the sediments, killing most of the animals from the previously viable aquatic habitat (see EUTROPHICATION & FISH KILLS). (MP & IP)
ALGEBRA : the branch of mathematics in which symbols (e.g. x,y,z ) are used to represent numbers or variables in arithmetic operations. (See ARITHMETIC). (IP)
AL-GHAZALI: (1058-1111)- Muslim scholar, theologian and Sufi, author of "Ihya Ulum al-Din" ("Revivification of the Religious Sciences"). In his major work , "Ihya Ulum al-Din", Al-Ghazali explains and clarifies in four parts, the foundation of the beliefs of Islam, and the path of the Sufi. The first part deals with basic principles, the concept of worship in Islam and the importance of study and seeking knowledge. The second part deals with many matters of ethics. The third section deals with the evil traits that should be avoided, as they are an obstacle to approaching God. The fourth section deals with the stages of spiritual purification that are needed in order to attain salvation. (AG)

ALGORITHM: A set of steps or instructions which precisely describe a limited procedure or task. Computer programs are written in programming languages designed around the requirements for precision and coordination of sets of algorithms. (See COMPUTER, ARTIFICIAL LANGUAGES, GENETIC ALGORITHM) (MP)

ALIEN LIFE: It is certainly possible, perhaps probable, that life is common across the universe. Readings from distant sources in the galaxy have detected some chemical constituents of chlorophyll and amino acids. One serious scientific theory proposes that ice from impacting comets may have delivered the first building blocks of life to Earth. Solar systems with planets similar to our own are relatively common, estimated conservatively by Harvard University’s Harlow Shapley at more than one hundred million fcts for life in our solar system are on Europa, oneeport flying saucers and alien abductions. Scientifent life cannot be found because it quickly tends to destroy itself with its own technology. (See LIFE, SETI, ORIGIN OF LIFE) (MP)
ALIENS : Beings from another planet. Ethical issues relating to the human attitude to aliens has been extensively discussed in science fiction literature. The term is also used in Japan and the USA to refer to foreigners. (DM)
ALLAH : Allah is special name for God in Arabic. In Islamic belief, Allah alone is the true God for all that exists who has no partners or rivals. The Quran mentions 100 names for God, which in deed they are adjectives and each one expresses one of His attributes. Allah is not a descriptive name like other ninety nine names and attributes such as The Merciful, The Beneficent. The name Allah, itself contains all these attributes. There is no consensus that the word Allah is compounded of "al" the definite article and "ilah", meaning "a god". The Qur`an mentions the word "Allah" have also been used in pre-Islamic times.This word is used by all Arabic speaking, Muslims, Christians Jews and others. (See QURAN) (AB).

ALLELES: Alternative forms of a genetic locus; alleles are inherited separately from each parent (e.g. at a locus for eye color there might be alleles resulting in blue or brown eyes). (DM) Alleles arise through mutations in a given DNA sequence. If the locus codes for a protein,  alleles can result in different phenotypes. Alleles can be dominant (a single dose is sufficient for expression of the phenotype) or recessive (both genes must carry a mutant allele in order to express the trait). At the genotype level, the alleles at a given locus are co-dominant. Different alleles can also be found in silent regions of the genome (the non-coding part of the genome) (see STR, VNTR, SNP, RFLP). Some loci are bi-allelic, having only two alternative forms, but the most useful loci for gene mapping, population studies and human identification analyses are those which are multiallelic, resulting in a high polymorphism content of the locus at the population level. (GK)

ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES : See RESOURCE ALLOCATION.
ALLOCATION RIGHTS : See QUOTA.
ALLOGRAFT : (Greek allos "other" + graphion "stylus") also called homograft, a non-permanent graft of tissue between two genetically different individuals of the same species such as a tissues transplant between two individuals who are not identical twins. The graft material can include, for example, cadaver skin stored in a tissue-bank. (See AUTOGRAFT, XENOGRAFT). (IP)
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION : Evolutionary divergence of populations which forms different species due to geographic separation, which do not interbreed. (JA)
ALLOPATRY: (Greek: allo "other" and Latin: patria "homeland"). Occupying different geographic distributions or ranges. (See ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION, SYMPATRY) (MP)
ALLOSTASIS: (Greek: allo 'variable' + stasis 'stability') literally 'achieving stability through change' describes the mechanisms which enable the body to withstand challenge. Allostatic systems, particularly the nervous, hormonal and immune complexes, protect the body by adapting to the ever-changing internal and external demands made on it. Allostatic load refers to the price of adaptation; that is, the accumulated wear and tear from chronic over- or underactivity of the allostatic systems (see STRESS, HOPE and WELLBEING). (IP)
ALLOWABLE CATCH : See TOTAL ALLOWABLE CATCH.
ALLOWING TO DIE: Thee withdrawal or withholding of life-prolonging treatment. This is often referred to as Passive euthanasia, and is sometimes effected through Do not Resuscitate (DNR) orders. (See also EUTHANASIA, FUTILITY, PROLONGATION OF LIFE, RIGHT TO DIE, TERMINAL CARE, WITHHOLDING TREATMENT). (DM)
ALPHA-1-ANTITRYPSIN : See AAT.

ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN : See MATERNAL SERUM ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN.

ALPHA-FETOPROTEIN SCREENING : A routine maternal serum screening test used for pregnant women to detect pregnancies at high risk for chromosomal disorders or neural tube defects. (See also PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS, TRIPLE TEST). (DM)
AL-RAZI (RHAZES) ; 865-925, Muslim scholar, physician and chemist. He was born at Ray, Iran. Author of works on medicine, pharmacology and philosophy. His contribution to medicine was so significant that it can be compared to that of Ibn Sina, his share, greatly influenced the development of science in general and medicine in particular. In his method, he took patient's history and clinical observation in medical practice.
He wrote around 50 books only in medicine and some of his famous books on medicine are: Al-Hawi, which contained various medical subjects and all important information that was available from Greek and Arab sources including his own remarks based on his experiences and views; "Al-Judrai Wal Hassba" was the first book to draw clear comparisons between smallpox and chicken-pox. He also prepared alcohol by fermenting sweet products. (AB)
ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS: An abnormal state of mind. Space and time may appear to be suspended, and the psyche (mind/soul) may seem detached from the body (soma). Such a condition may be the result of meditation, mystical prayer, ritualistic ceremonies, orgiastic dancing, sleep deprivation, starvation, shock, hypnosis, mental illness, mind-altering drugs and of course dreaming. (See MEDITATION, DREAM, RECREATIONAL DRUGS, HYPNOSIS, MANIA, DEPERSONALIZATION, DISSOCIATION) (IP & MP)
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY: See RENEWABLE ENERGY.

ALTERNATIVE PARADIGM: An up-and-coming alternative social framework or world-view. The new environmental paradigm places intrinsic value in the preservation of nature, is eco-centric, based on soft power and soft technology, treats economics only as a means to an end, recognizes limits to growth, condones collaborative, leisurely and sufficiency lifestyles, believes in grassroots organization, decentralization, people power and nonviolent direct action, is non-consumeristic and non-nuclear, promotes sustainable development and ethical value systems, and encourages compassion and tolerance towards other species, human groups, and future generations. (See DOMINANT PARADIGM, PARADIGM SHIFT, GREEN MOVEMENT, PEACE MOVEMENT, ANTI-GLOBALIZATION MOVEMENT, SOFT POWER, SOFT TECHNOLOGY, HIPPIES, NONVIOLENT DIRECT ACTION, ACTIVISM, DEVELOPMENT, SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, PROGRESS, UTOPIA) (MP)   

ALTERNATIVE THERAPIES : Unorthodox or unconventional or complementary therapeutic systems and therapies. What is unconventional in some parts of the world may be very conventional in others. For example Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine are unconventional in the West, but quite conventional in the East. Although Western physicians have had a very negative attitude in the past, to what is regarded as unconventional, there are now increasingly many attempts at scientific clinical trials of alternative medicine. The idea of "integrative medicine", seeking to integrate the best from various methods, may replace old ideas of what is conventional and what isn't.
Concepts in some alternative therapies, like the energy which is called ki in Japanese, and chi in Chinese, are a challenge to philosophies of science which, since Newton and Hume, have been trying to rid science of mysterious concepts of energy . (DM)(FL)
The dilutions in Homeopathy, moreover, are a challenge to orthodox chemistry. Sometimes, when new developments seem to contradict science, we reject the new developments. Sometimes, we revise orthodox science. The astronomical observations made after the invention of the telescope were difficult, if not impossible, to reconcile with Ptolemaic astronomy. Rather than rejecting the new observations, Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo rejected Ptolemaic astronomy. It will be interesting to see whether the future will bring a reaffirmation of orthodox science, and a rejection of unorthodox medicine, or the exact opposite. Or perhaps there will be a new synthesis that we have not yet thought of. (DM, FL)
ALTERNATIVES: (MP) (See DECISION MAKING, DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS)
ALTRUISM : Social interaction, a behavior of doing good to another at the expense of its own welfare. Disinterested altruism is a disadvantage from an evolutionary viewpoint. A gene can be altruistic if promotes the welfare of another entity. Opp. Selfish = opposite sense. There are however interested forms of altruism, which may favour survival of the individual or the species, by being cooperative. (JA, DM)
ALZHEIMER’s DISEASE : Also called senile dementia-Alzheimer type after Alois Alzheimer, neurologist, 1864-1915. It is characterized by progressive and irreversible mental deterioration, confusion, memory failure, disorientation, restlessness, speech and movement disturbances and hallucinosis (See DEMENTIA; PSYCHOSIS). (IP+DR)
AMBIGUITY: Vague or uncertain meaning; the possibility of multiple distinct interpretations of a single expression. Ambiguity and circumlocution are tools used by politicians to avoid sensitive lines of questioning. Ambiguity can be beneficial to the spread of some memes, for example the term "sustainable development" has broad appeal to both environmentalists and developers precisely because of its ambiguity. The ambiguities of language may provide the subtleties of literature, but language precision is centrally important to bioethical policy and scientific discourse where ambiguity can obscure important assumptions or methodological details. (See DEFINITION, EUPHEMISM) (MP)
AMERINDIAN : Definition adopted by anthropologists to call the inhabitants of the Americas belonging to one of the three main linguistic families defined by Joseph Greenberg, the Amerind speaking peoples. In modern biological anthropology and genetics, this term has been adopted to designate a group of present-day native American peoples from North-, Central- and South America in all the studies of the biological variation that attempt to characterize the DNA polymorphisms of different loci in these and other human groups. Although the linguistic classification of the Native American languages remains controversial, the term is now coined for the peoples inhabiting this part of the planet. (GK)
AMINO ACID: Any of a group of 20 molecules that combine to form proteins in living things. Chemically they contain an amino group, -NH2, and a carboxyl group, -COOH. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the genetic code. There are actually 21 in number, with the 21 ^st , selenocysteine, being seldom used. They are the building blocks to form proteins, e.g. Glycine. (DM+JA)
AMNESIA: (Greek: mnasthai "to forget") Memory loss caused by brain damage or severe emotional trauma. Usually only certain sections of the memory are affected, for example anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories since the onset of amnesia, whilst still allowing the retention of language and other basic skills. (See MEMORY IMPAIRMENT) (MP)

AMNIOCENTESIS : Diagnostic sampling of the amniotic fluid during pregnancy, usually performed by insertion of a needle into the amniotic cavity which surrounds the foetus during pregnancy.  Performed for prenatal screening. (see PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS) (IP, DM). Amniocentesis is followed by either a karyotype (see KARYOTYPE ANALYSIS) to explore the possibility of a chromosomal abnormality in the foetus, or by a molecular genetic test for a particular genetic disease. Usually, amniocentesis is accompanied by genetic counselling; in the case the test results indicate a genetic abnormality in the foetus, parents are given the choice of either interrupting or pursuing the pregnancy. Amniocentesis for Down Syndrome detection is mandatory in many countries for women over 35 years, due to the increased risk from this age on, but in many countries, amniocentesis, and thus, prenatal diagnosis, is not even permitted, on grounds of the illegality of abortion. Nevertheless, bioethicists and lawyers have pointed that the right to know has to be respected above any other consideration. In the case of a positive result for Down syndrome or any other genetic condition, it may help parents and other family members in preparing themselves psychologically to accept the baby, whereas, in the case of a negative result, throwing out the presence of such a problem, the parents are relieved of an unnecessary anxiety during pregnancy (GK).

AMNIOTIC FLUID : The fluid in which the fetus floats. (JA)
AMOTIVATIONAL SYNDROME : The loss of interest, drive and progress in certain normal aspects of life. These may include social life, for example non-maintenance of friendships, lost interest in outdoor recreation or reduced sex drive; or more commonly in working life, for example a decline in productivity or performance, dropping out of student courses or regular non-attendance at work. Amotivational Syndrome may be an indication of depression, anxiety, persistent drug use or other conditions with symptoms of dullness and lethargy. (See MOTIVATION). (IP+MP)
AMPHETAMINES : Central nervous system stimulants, commonly amphetamine sulfate which has the trade name Benzedrine. Developed in the 1920s, amphetamines and their relatives have been used to treat depression, obesity, narcolepsy and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Amphetamines are subject to abuse because of their stimulant properties, which include wakefulness, excitement and increased energy levels, but they are also attractive because of their ability to generate an addictive euphoria when they are ingested, injected or snorted. Abuse can lead to compulsive behavior, dependence, hostility, paranoia, hallucinations, physical deterioration - particularly cardio-vascular - and suicidal tendencies. Regular use may also lead to serious amphetamine-induced psychosis. Amphetamines have many street names such as "speed", "black beauties", "lid poppers", "pep pills" but also "base" which is much stronger, and "crystal meth" or "ice" which is a smokable crystalline derivative of methylamphetamine. As for most toxic addictive drugs, it takes strong motivation to quit, however, users should at all times take care to prevent conception since amphetamine abuse adversely affects sperm quality and in utero fetal development risking postnatal wellbeing. (See RECREATIONAL DRUGS, INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION). (IP)
AMPHIBIA: See FROG EXTINCTIONS.
AMYGDALA: (Greek: "almond") Part of the brain’s limbic system, specialising in thheir lives. (See EMOTION, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE) (MP)
ANABOLIC STEROIDS: Synthetic compounds with a molecular structure similar to the male sex hormone testosterone. The anabolic component promotes muscle growth and the androgenic component acts upon masculine traits in the body. They have an important function in general medical applications as; for example, in replacement therapy for men with low testosterone levels, but are also commonly illegally used as performance-enhancing drugs in dosage regimes 10 to 100 times the accepted therapeutic range. Performance enhancement is suitable for weight lifting, body building, power lifting and field events where they permit athletes to train longer and harder with improved competitiveness due to heightened aggression. Uncontrolled steroid use is damaging to health and can cause liver dysfunction and increased risk of cardiovascular disease and cancer. Unscrupulous scientists, malpractising doctors or misguided administrators can create a rationale that international success, especially in the Olympic Games, implies the use of performance-enhancing drugs where disputes surrounding the legality of some winning performances (catching "Fool's gold"). Traces can last for years (see ERYTHROPOIETIN or EPO). (IP).
ANAEROBE: (Greek: an + aer "without air" + bios "life") any microorganism which lives and grows in the absence, or almost absence, of oxygen. They are widely distributed in nature with just a few being infectious occurring, typically, in deep puncture wounds that exclude air or in tissue that has diminished oxygen-reducing potential. Common examples of anaerobic infections are gangrene, tetanus and botulism - the last a source of poisoning from improperly cooked or canned foods (see BOTULISM; ENDOTOXIN). (IP)
ANAEROBIC: A ny species which generally lives in the absence of oxygen (Greek: an + aer "without air" + bios "life"). (IP)
ANAEROBIC EXERCISE : Muscular exertion sufficient to result in metabolic acidosis resulting from accumulation of lactic acid - a product of muscle metabolism. This form of strenuous exercise should be avoided at all costs during pregnancy because strenuous physical activity results in many physiological changes that can affect the wellbeing of the fetus. Some of these changes are obvious; for example, severe exercise stimulates increased production of noradrenaline causing immediate contractions of the uterus, which may negatively affect the uteroplacental circulation and the fetus. The most serious argument against endurance sport and also prolonged immersion in saunas during pregnancy concerns the consequences of maternal hyperthermia or overheating. Animal studies have shown a consistent relationship between birth defects and exposure to high temperatures, although the data on human pregnancy and elevated temperature are not as consistent. Hyperthermia has at least four deleterious effects a) teratogenic effects of core temperatures of greater than 40 degrees C in early pregnancy have been conclusively demonstrated in animal studies b) effects of elevated temperature on oxygen hemoglobin-binding curves makes oxygen uptake by the fetal blood more difficult c) effects of increased maternal oxygen consumption due to temperature-induced elevated metabolic rate reduces oxygen availability for fetal consumption d) increased maternal blood flow to the skin for thermoregulation decreases uterine irrigation affecting placental transport of oxygen and nutrients. (See AEROBIC EXERCISE; ANAEROBIC; HYPERTHERMIA). (IP)
ANALOG : (Greek analogos 'proportionate'). 1. Likeness in appearance or function but not in evolutionary origin; for example, the insect eye and the mammalian eye - hence analogous. 2. Numerical information (as in analog computer) that is represented in the form of a quantity (usually a voltage) that varies in equal manner as the data but is convenient to manipulate mathematically. (See DIGITAL, COMPUTER). (IP)
ANALOGOUS : See ANALOG.
ANALOGY : (Greek analogia 'proportion'). In mathematics the identification of a general agreement or similarity between two problems or methods. For instance, analogy is used to indicate the results of one problem from the known results of the other. In biology the identification of a resemblance of form or function between organs essentially different; that is, not of common evolutionary origin. For instance, the wings of birds are analogous to the wings of insects. (See METAPHOR). (IP)
ANALYSIS : (Greek ana + lyein 'to loosen'). The branch of mathematics that uses the concept of limits - resolution to simple elements. In chemistry/biology the separation of substances into their constituent parts and the determination of their nature; for example, qualitative analysis determines what elements are present while quantitative analysis determines the quantity of each element. (See ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE, SCIENTIFIC METHOD, STATISTICS). (IP)

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a series of statistical procedures for determining whether differences among groups of data are attributable to chance alone. A significance test, it determines whether there is a significant difference between the means of a number of treatment groups. As a common technique for comparison of two or more populations, care should be taken to coordinate experimental design with its requirements. Design considerations and elements of ANOVA include one-way ANOVA, two-way ANOVA, multi-factorial comparisons, randomized block designs, orthogonal designs, nested or hierarchical analyses, transformations of data, degrees of freedom, significance level and probability of Type I and Type II Errors. Tests for homogeneity of variance include Cochran’s Test for balanced data, and Bartlett’s Test for unbalanced data. Analysis of Covariance combines regression techniques with analysis of variance. (See ANALYSIS, VARIANCE, STATISTICS, SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL, TYPE I ERROR, CHI-SQUARE TEST, SCIENTIFIC METHOD) (MP & IP)

ANALYTIC PHILOSOPHY: A movement begun at the beginning of the twentieth century by Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead and G.E. Moore in England, by Ludwig Wittgenstein in Austria and England and by Gottlob Frege in Germany. Originally it was an extremely demanding discipline of analysing scientific and mathematical language in terms of mathematical logic. It was thought that all knowledge consists of sense experience expressed in logical form, except for mathematics which is entirely formal. Mathematics, therefore, was thought of as a branch of logic, and all mathematical truths were to be proved from axioms of logic. (Axioms of logic are obviously true contentless statements like: "Either it is or it isn't".) In 1931, however, this was shown to be a hopeless dream when Kurt Godel published a paper proving that in any logical system which is strong enough to formulate simple arithmetic, there will be true statements which cannot be proven from the axioms of the system.
While analytic philosophy was highly mathematical at Cambridge, Oxford philosophers developed the "ordinary language" school of philosophy, analysing concepts by observation of how we use words in ordinary speech. Gilbert Ryle believed, for example, that neurobiology is irrelevant to the study of the mind: we only need analyse our uses of mental words, like "think", "feel", "imagine", etc, in ordinary language. Ethics became no longer an enquiry into what is right and what is wrong but an enquiry into how we use words like "right and wrong". An offspring of this approach is today's "descriptive bioethics". But while Oxford ordinary language philosophy was highly parochial, restricting one's investigation to how English-speaking people use words, descriptive bioethics uses international surveys to try to bridge cultural relativism. (FL)
ANARCHISM: The term is often used pejoratively, with associations of violent lawlessness. But it also has positive meanings having to do with the attempt to live without government, coercion or any uniformity of practice imposed from above. In politics, the doctrine is difficult to carry out in practice when defense requires some form of governmental organization. In individual life, however, it can be more practical and some have succeeded in living quite well while ignoring government and other coercive institutions.
A bioethical attitude inspired by anarchism is one's taking care of one's own health -- carefully observing the effects of foods and lifestyles on one's health, for example -- rather than living and eating thoughtlessly and then running to physicians to get one out of trouble. In clinical ethics, an attitude inspired by anarchism would be the rejection of national or international -- or even hospital-wide -- laws or guidelines for DNR, abortion, candidacy for IVF, etc, leaving the decisions up to ward staff meetings, including doctors, nurses and social workers, together of course with patient and family. (FL)
ANCIENT WISDOM Some people think that humans are getting wiser and more ethical in every generation. Others think that we are getting less wise and less ethical. Many cultures have traditions of ancient wisdom, which is thought of as better than what we have today. Much of these traditions are based on the idea that prophesy belonged only to the ancients, because God, or the gods, only spoke to people in the old days. But there is no emphasis that this is true. It is just as likely that there be prophesy in every generation, or perhaps prophetic periods of history, followed by empty ones, which are followed by new prophesy. (FL)
ANDROID: (Greek: andros "man" + eidos "form") Pre-dating the word "robot", the term "android" was used in reference to any machine designed in the human image or constructed to imitate human actions. In contemporary popular culture, an android is a robot difficult to distinguish from human flesh and form, perhaps a cybernetic combination of biochemical and electromechanical components. (See ROBOT). (MP)
ANENCEPHALIC: Literally the condition of having no encephalon or brain (normally applied to fetuses or infants with no cerebrum). Anencephaly is the congenital absence of all or a major part of the brain. (DM)
ANESTHESIA: The partial or complete loss of sensation with or without consciousness as the result of injury, disease, or administration of an anesthetic. (DM)
ANEUPLOIDY: Refers to an abnormal number of chromosomes observed in a karyotype. The number can be either higher (presence of a trisomy), or lower (presence of a monosomy). (JA+GK)
ANGEL: A spiritual being, perhaps endowed with personality. They were extensively analysed in Jewish philosophy of Maimonides (Moshe ben Maimon) and in the Christian philosophy of St Thomas Aquinas. Although Judaism, Islam and Christianity are sometimes thought of as "monotheistic" religions, recognizing only one God, as opposed to "polytheistic" religions which have many, it is hard to find any ontological difference between the angels of the Hebrew Bible and the gods of Hinduism and Shinto. And the Bible describes the prophets as having had many interactions with angels. Indeed there are traditions both in Shinto and in Hinduism, which interpret the many gods just like Judaism interprets angels, as many different appearances of one infinite god. (The ancient Greeks and Romans, in contrast, do not seem to have had any concept of this unity.) So the distinction between monotheistic and polytheistic religions seems to disappear, making possible more toleration of diverse religions and cults as representing many different ways of approaching one infinite God (an attitude once argued for by Sri Aurobindo).
Many scientific people today doubt that angels exist. But many scientists believe in infinitely many non-physical entities, like "sets" and "numbers", whose existence has never been proved. Unlike sets and numbers, however, angels are thought of as active. But sub-atomic particles are also very active. And sub-atomic particles do not seem to be physical objects. Because if Heisenberg was right about indeterminacy then it follows that sub-atomic particles are not physical objects. For sub-atomic particles, according to Heisenberg, have no determinate (but only statistical) simultaneous location and motion. But it is part of being physical that an object, at any given time, is at a specific place with a specific (possibly zero) motion. So we have an example of scientifically recognized non-physical objects.
Socrates thought that a daemon was guiding his conscience. The 17th Century French mathematician, physicist and philosopher, Descartes, contemplated the possibility that an evil angel was confusing his thoughts, and at about the same time Milton, in England, was writing "Paradise Lost" about "fallen angels" confusing people's ethics. The idea of angels influencing our ethics may have been a way of expressing the feeling that some of our life decisions (bioethics) are neither the result of education nor of rational investigation, but are things we are driven to do by causes which we do not understand. (FL)
ANGEL DUST : See PHENCYCLIDINE HYDROCHLORIDE.

ANGER: A negative emotional reaction associated with other bad feelings such as fear, disgust, shame, irritability, outrage, hostility and possibly even violence. Actions resulting from anger often have negative consequences, because the neurotransmitters/hormones (e.g. adrenaline) released during anger intensify impulsive action and cloud rational thought processes. (See AGGRESSION, ADRENALINE, FEAR, CONFLICT MANAGEMENT, EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE, TRANQUILITY, JOY) (MP)
ANGIOSPERM: The flowering vascular plants which dominate many terrestrial habitats such as deciduous forest, sclerophyll forest and rainforest. Class Angiospermae is primarily differentiated from the Gymnospermae by its mode of reproduction, which is via the seed, the fruit and the flower with its pistil and stamen. Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. (See FLOWER, HARDWOODS, GYMNOSPERM) (MP)

Å NGSTROM : A unit of length defined as 10 ^-10 meter. Å is used to express wavelengths of light, ultraviolet radiation and sizes of molecules. (IP)
ANIMAL : A living being with a capacity for spontaneous movement and a rapid motor response to stimulation. Animals can be divided into two groups, invertebrates (animals without backbones) and vertebrates (animals with backbones). (DM)
ANIMAL CARE COMMITTEES : Institutional committees established to protect the welfare of animals used in research. A type of ethics committee that focuses on the welfare of nonhuman animals. (See also ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION). (DM)
ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS : An experimental procedure conducted upon a non-human animal. These may be conducted for a variety of purposes, including education, medical research, cosmetic testing, product safety. There are ethics committees in many countries to regulate the experimental nature, procedure and justified purposes. (See ANIMAL RIGHTS, CLINICAL TRIALS). (DM)
ANIMAL HOUSE : A place where animals are reared and bred for experimental research, or laboratory testing, of cosmetics and other chemical substances prior to wider use. (JA+DM)
ANIMAL RIGHTS : A right is a thing to which an entity is entitled, for example, the 'right to free speech'. Traditionally only human beings have been said to possess rights and even then the term 'rights' is understood by many philosophers as having only legal currency rather than moral authority. The notion of animal rights extends rights to certain non-humans, typically those with sentience, that is, the ability to feel pleasures and pains. Those who advocate animal rights maintain that to allow humans rights but to deny them to all other species is speciesist - which is unacceptably discriminatory. There is an ethical and legal move to ascribe rights to Great Apes, and New Zealand has enacted laws which do. The UK and European Union have not enacted laws which ascribe rights to the Great Apes but it has stopped the practice of using Great Apes in medical experiments, whatever the purported benefits. (See GREAT APE PROJECT, HUMAN RIGHTS) (MR+DM)
ANIMAL TESTING ALTERNATIVES : Procedures, such as tissue culture and mathematical models, that are used in place of the use of animals in research or diagnostic laboratories. (DM)
ANIMAL WELFARE: The entitlement of animals to protection from cruelty and abuse, or to not be used solely for the benefit of humans. (See BIOCENTRIC). (DM)
ANIMISM : The belief that the boundary between human and non-human is fluid so that the things of the world, both animate and inanimate, are spirited and able to communicate or be spiritually affiliated with humans (see Dreaming). In the modern context most of us now wish to see ourselves more as a participating member of Nature by giving due regard to the interdependence of all living systems and their further dependence on physical cycles. This acknowledgment is a significant intellectual advance as it undercuts the dualistic Greco-Roman view of human and natural systems being distinct from one another and links back to ancient understandings, as substantiated in Paleolithic cave paintings at Lascaux and Altamira and the Dreamtime depictions in Aboriginal rock art. Our hunter ancestors knew Nature and its creatures (many of whom were also their deities) and respected their ethical right to exist alongside humankind. Animism probably served as an adaptive ecological mechanism by impressing a bioethical restraint upon overexploitation and abuse (see TOTEMISM & AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINAL) (IP+AG).
ANNELIDA : (Latin: ãnulus 'ring') The zoological phylum containing annelid worms with an internally and externally segmented body and hydrostatic skeleton. Annelida includes the classes Polychaeta (marine worms), Oligochaeta (earthworms) and Hirudinea (leeches). (MP)
ANOMALY : See DEVELOPMENTAL ANOMALY.
ANONYMITY : Without a name. The concept is used in databases to protect the privacy of an individual sample by deleting the name, or identifiable information. The removal of the identifying information can occur before entering the storage facility, or database, or after. (DM)
ANONYMOUS TESTING : Epidemiological testing in which the source of the specimen or the person being tested is not individually identified; often used in testing for the prevalence of a disease. (DM)
ANOREXIA ATHLETICA: is an exercise addiction which often overlaps with eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia where the cycle of forced, prolonged exercise (swimming, running, dancing) and decreasing food intake forms the basis of activity anorexia. In order to maintain an adequate energy balance, caloric needs for non-essential bodily functions; such as reproduction, are suppressed. In the human context, anorexias may have resulted from natural selection favoring those individuals who become active in times of food scarcity as stopping to eat is negatively balanced against reaching an area where food may be abundant (see ANOREXIA NERVOSA; BULIMIA NERVOSA; OBESITY). (IP)
ANOREXIA NERVOSA: (Greek: a + orexis 'no appetite') An eating disorder characterized by a prolonged revulsion to eating resulting in emaciation, loss of periods, and emotional disturbance concerning body image and fear of becoming obese. The cause of thinness cannot be attributed to a primary endocrine (hormonal) disorder but the conditions of anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, emotional deprivation and calorie restriction can cause secondary endocrine abnormalities; such as delayed or absent puberty and infertility. The condition is primarily a maturational problem in adolescents who, in the majority of cases, come from dysfunctional family homes. For example, a significant proportion of patients with eating disorders were sexually molested by a family member or friend during childhood, or who associated eating with emotional distress, conflict and anxiety states (Greek a + orexis meaning no appetite) (see BULIMIA NERVOSA; ANOREXIA ATHLETICA; OBESITY) . (IP)
ANOVA: see ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE.
ANOSMIA : (Greek a + osme 'without smell'). 'Odor blindness' - the total loss or impairment of the sense of smell. Anosmia may be temporary resulting, for example, from an obstructive respiratory infection or a blow on the head which may damage the olfactory receptors, or be permanent as a result of an irreversible damage to any part of the olfactory apparatus. Sometimes anosmia (the so called specific anosmias) does not involve a total loss or reduction of the sense of smell but is instead specific to particular substances; for example, 3% of the population has trouble smelling the odor of sweat, 12% have diminished sensitivity to musky odors. It is important to note that anosmia may be induced by injuring the olfactory receptors consequent to inhaling caustic substances such as lead, zinc sulfate, or concentrated matter such as cocaine. (See OLFACTION, SENSES). (IP)
ANTARCTICA : The continent at the South of the planet Earth, where the South Pole is located. A landmass covered with ice, up to several km thick, because it is below freezing. The Antarctic Treaty is an international treaty against commercial exploitation of the mineral resources of this continent, intended to prevent pollution. Many nations have research bases on he continent, and some claim territory of Antarctica or islands off its coast. (DM)

ANTE- : Prefix denoting ‘before’ in space or time. (See PRE-, ANTI-) (MP)

ANTENATAL DIAGNOSIS : See PRENATAL DIAGNOSIS.
ANTHRAX : One of the powerful bacterial biological weapons Bacillus anthracis occurs in many different strains as skin and inhalation strains, stable in spore condition, on contact it multiplies, its toxins cause hemorrhage leading to death. (JA)

ANTHROPIC PRINCIPLE: (Greek: anthropo ‘human’) Cose exiandon Carter and developed in John Barrow and Frank Tipler’s ‘ The Anthropic Cosmological Principle’ . (See OMEGA POINT THEORY, PARALLEL UNIVERSES THEORY, HOL