This was a large meeting of 1000 researchers including over 500 posters and about 150 oral presentations. Each of the three days set 3 hours lunchtime aside for poster sessions, to encourage discussion among researchers with the consequence that there were usually three overlapping workshops held simultaneously at other times.

Two of the IBC members, Bartha Knoppers and Darryl Macer were invited to speak at a workshop on the first day "Ethical, social, legal and political implications of the Human Genome Project", which was chaired by Ira Carmen, and supported by the Canadian Genome Analysis and Technology Program . This was a 3 hour session devoted to bioethical issues and was well attended. The first three talks before afternoon tea saw more than 400 in attendance, and included: Eric Juengst (USA), "Bringing it back to the laboratory: New issues for basic genome scientists", who looked at confidentiality, pedigrees, privacy from research and third party interests; BK, "Towards an international framework for human genome research", who reviewed the HUGO Code of Ethics which was accepted by the HUGO Council the day before (Nature 380 (1996), 279) ; and DM, "Informed consent and group participation in population genetics research and the Human Genome Diversity Project", who reviewed the bioethics issues of population genetics research, the different world-views between researchers and some indigenous population groups, and the work of the UNESCO IBC subcommittee on population genetics report (Nature 379 (1996), 11). The issue of group consent seems to be divisive among researchers, and it will be difficult to effect.

After the break the numbers diminished, but there were another 3 excellent talks with Therese Marteau, "What is an acceptable level of psychological harm from genome applications", who focused on surveys of attitudes to genetic counseling in London, and how the word "genetics" may have a worse image than the word "test" itself; Debra Chase et al. "Ethical and social issues involved in the collection of a blood sample from a complete birth cohort", who considered the extent of informed consent in obtaining samples from persons around Sellafield nuclear reprocessing plant and the preservation of privacy; Sandy Thomas et al., "Human genome patents: An analysis of ownership", who presented a breakdown on the over 1100 human gene patents already awarded (Nature 380 (1996), 387-8), in which Japan rates first among all the countries.

The second day opened with a plenary lecture by Joseph Straus, "Intellectual property and genome research". He concluded that there was no need for additions to the HUGO statement on patenting, that there be no special law on patenting of the results of genome research, and there was a need to look at the breadth of patents, and the exclusion criteria, and to avoid speculative patents on sequences of unknown function or utility. The work of Thomas et al., and consideration of the patent question was useful for the IBC work in the coming year on intellectual property.

The rest of the meeting was basically biological science and informatics. There was a workshop on population genetics which included some discussion of consent issues, and overall a few researchers mentioned issues of some relation to bioethics. The first lecture of the meeting was by Jean Weissenbach "Integrating maps of the human genome" (Dib, C. et al. "A comprehensive genetic map of the human genome based on 5,264 microsatellites", Nature 380 (1996), 152-154 (A supplementary issue of Nature contains the data!). On the third day, Eric Lander "Mapping in Mouse and Man", reported that international cooperative project to finalize a genetic map of the mouse has been completed, with an average spacing of 0.2cM (450kb) (Dietrich, WF. et al. "A comprehensive genetic map of the mouse genome", Nature 380 (1996), 149-52), and that the human genetic mapping efforts would be completed within a few months, now having 30,000 STS markers across the genome.

Overall, the project is proceeding very rapidly and it will be interesting if the Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights is accepted by the UN system before they receive the full sequence of the human genome. It was reassuring that so many attended the ethics session, and it was in the meeting at all, however, it will be more reassuring when ethical issues are also discussed, or at least mentioned, in the scientific context in which they arise during the presentation of research methods and results.

One of the further announcements from the HUGO Annual Meeting discussed in the report by D. Macer above, was the completion of the full sequence of the first eucaryotic genome, yeast, at 12 million bases, Science 271 (1996), 1798-9; 272 (1996), 27, 481. However the public release of the last 20% of this sequence was further delayed until end of April, raising controversy among many researchers. The NIH has incorporated rapid sequence release agreements with grant applications for large scale projects, Nature 380 (1996), 279, 471; Science 272 (1996), 188. Also on data-sharing Science 272 (1996), 477-8. The genome maps are announced in the HUGO Meeting Report above, see also Nature 380 (1996), 111-2. In Japan, the entire genome of blue-green algae, cyanobacterium, which is 3.5 megabases has been finished by the Kazusa DNA Research Institute in Chiba, Japan, Nature 379 (1996), 761. Further expansion of genome sequencing in Japan is underway, Nature 380 (1996), 375.

Human Genome Sciences has announced a deal to sequence the corn genome, together with Pioneer Hi-Bred, and also that it will soon complete the sequence of Methanococcus jannaschii, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 255-6. International collaboration on microbial and plant genome sequencing is described in GEN (15 Feb 1996), 1, 14. The full sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis will be sequenced by a collaboration between the Wellcome Trust supported Sanger Centre, and the Institute Pasteur, Lancet 347 (1996), 890. On international genome agreements, Biotechnology 13 (1995), 1149-50.

A general review of the project is in SA (March 1996), 100-5. A resource centre for information on the human genome is available on the Internet from the UK HGMP Resource Centre of the MRC. A description is in Glasner, P. et al. "Exploring organizational issues in British genomic research", The Genetic Engineer and Biotechnologist 15 (2, 3, 1995), 125-133. On the future of virtual laboratories, Nature 380 (1996), 93. A paper on integration of the cytogenetic, genetic and physical maps of the human genome is Genomics 31 (1996), 1-14. Prof. Daniel Cohen who lead the French scientific team to make the physical map of the human genome has joined a company, Genset, together with 25 of his staff, which is working on drug development through genome sequencing, GEN (1 March 1996), 1, 20.

There is growing evidence from Alu repeat sequences for an African origin for modern Homo sapiens, Tishkoff, SA. et al. "Global patterns of linkage disequilibrium at the CD4 locus and modern human origins", Science 271 (1996), 1380-7, 1364. A new book from Ciba Foundation, published by John Wiley & Sons has been announced, Weiss, KM. ed., Variation in the Human Genome (ISBN 0471-96152-3, 1996). A discussion of the HGDP is in GenEthics News 10 (Jan/Feb 1996), 6-8; and a letter on the term the "most beautiful people" and the word Caucasian in Cavalli-Sforza's recent book is Nature Genetics 12 (1996), 361-2. Book reviews on Neanderthal's are in Nature 380 (1996), 119. A review of study of genes of organisms trapped in amber, for millions of years, is SA (April 1996), 84-91.

The US NIH/DOE ELSI working group is under external review, Nature 381 (1996), 357. Also on ethics and the HGP, IDHL 47 (1996), 118-9. Third World participation in genome projects is called for in TIBTECH 14 (1996), 74-7. Papers on the ethical issues of population genetics are in Nature 381 (1996), 11-4.

Please note that the home page of Human Genome News (now supported only by DOE) and the Information service is at . On the commercial implications of the HGP, TIBTECH 14 (1996),143-4.

A commentary of the prospects for use of the knowledge of the HGP is GEN (15 May 1996), 4, 25; and on the commercialization of the genome project, Nature Genetics 13 (1996), 1-5. The yeast genome included 6500 genes, and many are being explored and it should be the first eucaryotic to have all its genes known, Lancet 347 (1996), 1175; Nature 381 (1996), 660-1; Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 429, 571; NS (27 April 1996), 26-9. A computer model suggesting that the original bacteria could have survived on 128 genes, rather than the 250 gene set minimal based on the bacteria sequenced so far, is described in Science 272 (1996), 1098-9. A review of the different species genomes that are being studied is Nature Genetics 13 (1996), 14-5. Zebrafish as a model species is discussed in Science 272 (1996), 1103; and pufferfish in PNAS 93 (1996), 1363-5, 1366-9. General comments on genetic sequencing (the 600+kilobase T Cell receptor gene region has been sequenced) and the genome project is Science 272 (1996), 1736-7. On bioinformatics, Science 272 (1996), 1730-1; Nature 381 (1996), 653-4.

A new strategy for genomic sequencing is suggested in Nature 381 (1996), 364-6. Genetic mapping strategy is discussed in Nature Genetics 13 (1996), 134-7. A possible function for some of the noncoding DNA in the genome is suggested in NS (8 June 1996), 19; also, BioEssays 18 (1996), 421-5.

A further study supporting a recent African origin for modern humans from minisatellite diversity is Nature Genetics 13 (1996), 154-60. Also on origins, Nature 381 (1996), 658-9; AJHG 58 (1996), 1109-10; Science 272 (1996), 1356-64; PNAS 93 (1996), 196-200, 2603-7, 4360-4; and of animal DNA studies, Nature 381 (1996), 484; Science 272 (1996), 1102. Studies on cattle DNA have suggested that since at least 22,000 years ago Africans and Europeans have separately been domesticating cattle, Science 272 (1996), 1105. Studies suggest DNA can only survive for millions of years unchanged in amber, NS (18 May 1996), 21; Science 272 (1996), 810, 864-8. A 500 year old Inca girl who was a human sacrifice has been on display in Washington, after removal from the glacier, Time (3 June 1996), 51.

Highlights from 5 US ELSI projects are summarized in Human Genome News (April-June 1996), 2-3. These include a project on crime and punishment, a radio program, adult science literacy, and school education program. The HUGO Ethics Statement which appeared in the May issue of EJAIB, and in HUGO Genome Digest 3 (No. 2, May 1996), 2-3; and is on-line, is also on-line at the HUGO site, .

SmithKline Beecham and Human Genome Sciences have agreed to license their database to three further companies for US$140 and license deals. The companies are Schering-Plough (Madison, NJ), Synthelabo (France), and Merck KgaA (Germany), GEN (August 1996), 1, 11. Other companies such as Takeda (Japan) already had signed agreements. Two companies in the USA have formed a new genomics company ChemGenics, GEN (1 June 1996), 1, 26. On bioinformatics, Science 273 (1996), 265. On commerce and the HGP, TIBTECH 14 (1996), 143-4. A review of the German genome project is in Science 273 (1996), 570-1; and the Canadian genome project is facing cuts in funding, Science 273 (1996), 867. We should applaud their progress so far in the high proportion of grants spent on ELSI issues.

On the discoveries of the yeast genome, now on the Internet , and at other sites; see Nature Genetics 13 (1996), 253-5; TIG 12 (1996), 241-5, 263-70. Bult CJ. et al. "Complete Genome Sequence of the Methanogenic Archaeon, Methanococcus jannaschii", Science 273 (1996); the genome sequence of molluscum contagiosum virus, Science 273 (1996), 813-6. A bacterial artificial chromosome contig map of human chromosome 22q is reported in PNAS 93 (1996), 6297-301. On chromosome manipulation, PNAS 93 (1996), 6847-50; and genome sequencing by ligation PCR, Molecular Biotechnology (1996), 281+.

The US NRC is holding public forums on the Human Genome Diversity Project (HGDP) which may well determine whether it receives US funding in coming years. A series of papers on genetics and anthropology, genes, people and property is in Cultural Survival Quarterly (Summer 1996), 22-70. Harvard University is helping China in efforts to map human genes there, Science 273 (1996), 315. In the Sinai which has polygamy it has been found that there is low diversity of the Y-chromosome, AJHG 59 (1996), 741-3. The results of mitochondrial DNA sequences comparisons among 241 individuals from ethnic groups in Africa are in AJHG 59 (1996), 437-44. Cultural barriers to the open use of archaeological remains are discussed in NS (22 June 1996), 30-3; (3 Aug. 1996), 8; Nature 382 (1996), 659.

Methods to extract ancient DNA are described in use on 600 year old remains, AJHG 59 (1996), 368-76; and on microsatellites, PNAS 93 (1996), 6470-5. Study of cichid fish in Lake Victoria find that it only took 12500 for 300 species to evolve, NS (15 August 1996), 15.

A general review is Macer, D., "The genome project - a commentary", pp. 345-76 in Bittar, E., ed, Principles of Medical Biology, Vol. 5, Molecular and Cellular Genetics (JAI Press, 1996, ISBN 1-55938-809-9). A call for improved ethical standards in collection of DNA is Science 273 (1996), 1788-9. A call for genomic sequence information to be released immediately and freely in the public domain is Science 274 (1996), 533-4. On the overhand too much data could flood the banks, Science 274 (1996), 534-5. On the use of genome databases, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 678-9, 711-4, 828; Nature Genetics 14 (1996), 1-2.

A special issue is Science 274 (26 October 1996), 479, 488-90, ++, 536, 610-4. on the genome. In Schuler, GD. et al. "A Gene Map of the Human Genome", Science 274 (1996), 540-6, more than 16,000 human genes have been mapped relative to a framework map that contains about 1000 polymorphic genetic markers. The gene map unifies the existing genetic and physical maps with the nucleotide and protein sequence databases in a fashion that should speed the discovery of genes underlying inherited human disease. The integrated resource is available through a site on the World Wide Web at <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/SCIENCE96/>.

A paper on the completion of the sequence of the genome of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is Science 274 (1996), 546-67. The sequence of 12,068 kilobases defines 5885 potential protein-encoding genes, approximately 140 genes specifying ribosomal RNA, 40 genes for small nuclear RNA molecules, and 275 transfer RNA genes. The genome shows a considerable amount of apparent genetic redundancy, and one of the major problems to be tackled during the next stage of the yeast genome project is to elucidate the biological functions of all of these genes. A review on mice is Meisler, MH. "The role of the laboratory mouse in the human genome project", AJHG 59 (1996), 746-71; and on a linkage map of cattle, J. Heredity 87 (1996), 261-71.

The U.S. government put up $12.7 million to begin large-scale sequencing of Arabidopsis thaliana, a small, flowering member of the mustard family, Science 274 (1996), 30; Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 696. The awards will fund the US portion of an international collaboration that will attempt to sequence the genome by 2004. Sequencing Arabidopsis should have a significant impact on plant science, because all 250,000 species of flowering plants, are genetically very similar. Although ten times more expensive at the moment, a new method for DNA sequencing may become preferable in the future, Kuster, H. et al. "A strategy for rapid and efficient DNA sequencing by mass spectrometry", Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1123-8.

A report of the completion of the third complete bacterial genome, that of Methanococcus jannaschii (1,760 genes) is in GEN (1 Sept. 1996), 4; Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1199, 1211-2, 1236. As mentioned previously it was done by the HGS company, with some support from US DOE. Analysis of the smaller genome of Mycoplasma genitalium is in Nature Genetics 14 (1996), 14-5.

A report of protests of indigenous groups against the Human Genome Diversity Project made to the US National Research Council review board is Nature 383 (1996), 208. A review on study of human history is von Haeseler, A et al. "The genetical archaeology of the human genome", Nature Genetics 14 (1996), 135-40. On mitochondrial DNA evolution, Nature Genetics 14 (1996), 146-51; AJHG 59 (1996), 927-34, 935-45; in South American mummies, Annals Human Genetics 60 (1996), 293-303.

Members of the International Bar Association have announced a draft International Convention on the Human Genome, NS (2 Nov 1996), 3, 8. The members of the Association have claimed that they were working with the support of HUGO, however HUGO has strongly denied this, and distances themselves from the draft Declaration (the HUGO Ethics Committee discussed this at our meeting in November 1996). Parts of the Declaration bear strong similarity to the UNESCO Declaration on the Protection of the Human Genome, released in 1994, and revised since then (see earlier issues of EJAIB for copies, and the on-line copies on Eubios homepage. The UNESCO Declaration 4th version is being released in January 1997, and will be printed in EJAIB when available. Given that the drafters of this Convention have not been asked by HUGO, contrary to their claim, and the similarities to UNESCO's Draft, DM decided not to print the draft Convention in EJAIB. Their hopes that it will be adopted by the UN seem to ignore the fact that with the support and cooperation of UN agencies, and unanimous support of the 186 member countries of UNESCO, UNESCO has been working on an International Declaration since 1993. Those readers who want details should contact the chair of the drafting committee, Martine Rothblatt, Mahon & Patusky Law Offices, 1735 Connecticut Ave, NW, Third Floor, Washington DC 20009, USA. Let us hope that the most suitable protection for the human genome is found. The extent of methods to protect consent requirements for DNA samples and the recent NIH policy are debated in Science 273 (1996), 902-3.

American Indians' claims of a 9300-year-old skeleton as their ancestor have led federal officials to stop scientific research on some of the oldest human remains discovered in North America. Anthropologists at the University of California, Davis, have been told to halt DNA analysis while lawyers determine who has rights to the remains, Science 274 (15 Nov 1996). A tissue bank of Egyptian pharaohs extracted from the mummies is being analyzed to examine genes and infectious diseases, NS (23 Nov 1996), 12. On diversity of the Y chromosome, Ann Hum. Genetics 60 (1996), 401-8. New discoveries in Australia from stone tools suggest that aborigines may have settled the continent up to 176, 000 years ago, and rock art from 75,000 years ago has been found, NS (7 Dec 1996), 28-31. In Israel Yeminite immigrants who died in the 1950s are being opened to take DNA samples to check on parental lines and adoption, as mistakes may have led to marriages between family, Lancet 348 (1996), 1161.

In a report providing general background on the HGDP in Geneletter 1 (#3, 1996) it is said that "The Human Genome Organization (HUGO), the UNESCO International Bioethics Committee, and the House of Commons Science and Technology Committee (United Kingdom) (1995, pp. xxviii-xx) have endorsed the HGDP, provided that "real" informed consent can be obtained." Actually the UNESCO IBC did not endorse the project, but it did not reject it either. They also say "At present, several projects - not related to HGDP - are proceeding without opposition. The European Union has funded a project on the Biological History of European Peoples, with the cooperation of Walter Bodmer (Imperial Cancer Research Fund, London). The Biotechnology Department in India is beginning a project to collect samples from small tribal groups of under 1,000 people, groups that are likely to disappear. China also has an ongoing project similar to HGDP." - Actually the projects are related to the HGDP, and the Indian group has had some complaints because of US patent claims on Indian crops. The HGDP itself has not begun, however, projects related to it are underway, as are numerous unrelated population genetics projects.

The Indian government has approved a 5 year US$20 million project to study the genetic variations of some of its diverse population groups, Nature 384 (1996), 394. The project will be run by the Department of Biotechnology, as India has 465 communities including 75 endangered tribal groups. The 35-page ethical protocol of the North American HGDP Committee is on-line at <http://www-leland.stanford.edu/group/morrinst/hgdp.html>, and the UNESCO IBC report is on-line at <http://eubios.info/PG.html>, and we continue interest in the ethics of population genetics (contact person D. Macer). For some opposition opinion see the Rural Advancement Foundation International (RAFI), <http://www.charm.net/~rafi/rafihome.html>, or Native Net <http://www.indians.org/welker/genome.html>, or Cultural Survival <http://www.cs.org> Papers on the HGDP include Law and the Human Genome Review 4 (Jan-June 1996), 13-5, 107-24, 141-64, 209-14; GeneWatch 10 (Oct 1996), 8-9.

A discussion of the Wellcome Trust's Genome Campus in Hinxton near Cambridge, is in Science 274 (1996), 1293. The US DOE is consolidating its US$35 million a year sequencing effort under a single institute, the Joint Genome Institute, which says it will sequence 40% of the 3 billion base pairs, Nature 383 (1996), 748. A report from a Canadian conference on research funding including genome research is Lancet 348 (1996), 1026. A report on the French genome project is Genome Digest (Oct 1996), 5-6.

A review is Caetano-Anolles, G. "Scanning of nucleic acids by in vitro amplification: New developments and applications, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1668-74, 1700-4. It reviews "fingerprinting" techniques including the scanning of nucleic acids by amplification with arbitrary oligonucleotide primers which can generate simple-to-complex patterns from anonymous DNA or RNA templates without requiring prior knowledge of nucleic acid sequence or cloned or characterized probes. Discrete loci are amplified within genomic DNA, DNA complementary to mRNA populations (cDNA), cloned DNA fragments, and even PCR products. On genome sequencing methods, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1649-50.

A review of nucleic acid databases on the Web is Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1728. On the promise of genomic sciences for medicine, Nature Biotechnology 14 (1996), 1516-8. A review of the differences in genome size between different organisms, and how these may change is Nature 384 (1996), 315-6. A discussion of discoveries from the sequence of the Archeae, Methanococcus jannaschii is TIG 12 (1996), 377-9; Science 273 (1996), 901-3. Avian genetics and a method for sexing birds is reported in Nature 383 (1996), 761-2. Retroelements in genome organization are discussed in Science 273 (1996), 737-8.

The first Latin American Meeting on Bioethics and the Human Genome Project took place on October 9-12, 1996, in Manzanillo, Mexico, as a UNESCO-supported satellite meeting of the 21st National Congress of the Mexican Association of Human Genetics. Those present at the Bioethics meeting drafted a document called "The Declaration of Manzanillo," which supports the application of ethical guidelines to the Human Genome Project. The Declaration supports, in principle, UNESCO's "Declaration on the Human Genome and Human Rights," but includes more provisions applicable in clinical settings. One provision states that "Genetic testing and the actions resulting from testing have as their objective the well-being and health of the individual or the determination of fetal genetic characteristics for the purpose of facilitating autonomous reproductive decisions of the couples. On the other hand, tests should not be used for imposition of population policies or public health policies, or to satisfy the needs of third parties, such as state agencies, employers, or insurers." GeneLetter (January 1997). An Ibero-American Network on Bioethics and Genetics has been established for the purpose of exchange of information and collaborative research on social, ethical, and legal issues related to the human genome. For further information, contact: Dr. Jose Maria Cantu, Division of Genetics, IMSS, P.O. Box 1-3838, Guadalajara, Mexico (Email: jmcantu@koch.mb.udg.mx)

A conference report on whether US minorities should be concerned about the genome project is Human Genome News 8 (Oct-Dec 1996), 9-10. Lawyers, physicians seek genomics rules NatBio 15 (1997), 10. The ethical oversight of the HGP is discussed in Science 275 (1997), 22; Nature 385 (1997), 756. On applications of genetics to public health, AJPH 86 (1996), 1717-22.

The E.coli genome has been completely sequenced, Nature 385 (1997), 472. On mammalian comparative maps, NatGen 15 (1997), 6-7, 47-57; and the mitochondrial genome of Arabidopsis thaliana contains 57 genes in 366,924 nucleotides, NatGen 15 (1997), 57-61. A zebrafish genome project is being debated, Science 275 (1997), 923. A series of papers on the genome project are in Science 275 (1997), 601-2, 767-72; and on business Science 275 (1997), 773-5. Organelle genomes have been sequenced, Science 275 (1997), 790. On telomere function, Nature 385 (1997), 676-7. On the yeast genome database, Nature 385 (1997), 29-30.

On bioinformatics, NatBio 15 (1997), 3; Science 275 (1997), 301-2, 327-34. The information on the CEPH reference families is in Annals Hum. Genet 60 (1996), 447-86.

A review of the Human Genome Project in Korea is in HUGO Digest (Jan 1997), 5-6; and in Australia, Science 275 (1997), 25-6. On human genome agreements, Science 275 (1997), 601-2. Genetic studies in Pima Indians are in NatMed 3 (1997), 238-40; AJHG 60 (1997), 166-73, 188-96 . On disputes on buried bones, NS (4 Jan, 1997), 41. On Y-chromosome variation in great apes, Nature 385 (1997), 125-6; and evolution, Nature 385 (1997), 111-2.

A call to bring more ethical issues into anatomy and return of ancestral remains is Jones, DG. & Harris, RJ. "Contending for the dead", Nature 386 (1997), 15-6. A report on the protest of indigenous groups at the September 1996 DNA Sampling conference in Montreal is in GeneWatch 10 (4-5) (Feb 1997), 5, 18-9. Related to the issue of colonization is Nature 386 (1997), 339-40. On modern human origins, Kay, RF. et al. "Anthropoid origins", Science 275 (1997), 797-804; Nature 386 (1997), 337; NS (29 March 1997), 18; AJHG 60 (1997), 755-7, 772-89. The use of DNA markers to determine ethnic affiliation is reviewed in AJHG 60 (1997), 957-64. The technical issues of using ancient DNA are discussed in Nature 386 (1997), 764-5; AJHG 60 (1997), 1001-2.

Harrington, JJ. et al. "Formation of de novo centromeres and construction of first-generation human artificial microchromosomes", Nature Genetics 15 (1997), 345-55, 333-4. They combined long synthetic arrays of alpha satellite DNA with telomeric DNA and genomic DNA to generate artificial chromosomes in human HT1080 cells. They are mitotically and cytogenetically stable in the absence of selection for up to six months in culture, bind centromere proteins specific for active centromeres, and are estimated to be 6-10 megabases in size, approximately one-fifth to one- tenth the size of endogenous human chromosomes. A human gene mutation database is reviewed in TIG 13 (1997), 121-2.

A list of complete genomes mapped on the Japan KEGG Pathways as of February 1997 included the following species (Genome Size in nucleotides; Protein Genes; RNA Genes; Total Enzymes; Mapped Enzymes): Escherichia coli 4,638,858; 4,285; 106; 863; 642; Haemophilus influenzae 1,830,135; 1,717; 74; 446; 335; Mycoplasma genitalium 580,073; 467; 36; 140; 107; Mycoplasma pneumoniae 816,394; 678; 33; 152; 118 ; Methanococcus jannaschii 1,664,977; 1,680; 43; 280; 229 ; Synechocystis sp. 3,573,470; 3,168; 49; 602; 472; Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12,069,313; 6,131; 262; 745; 547. A review of the results of organelle genome loss is Science 275 (1997), 790-1. High resolution maps for human chromosomes X and 7 with markers not more than 100kb gaps have been published, GEN (1 April 1997), 1, 18; Genome Research (March 1997), 1-14.

A factory for sequencing DNA at 20 million base pairs a year is going to be built in the San Francisco area by the US Dept. Energy, Science 275 (1997), 1573. In general on the expanding range of sequencing techniques, GEN (1 April 1997), 1, 13, 35. A project to systematically identifying novel expressed sequence tag (EST) sequences that are highly related to genes in model organisms and map them to positions on the mouse and human maps is described in Bassett, DE. et al. "Genome cross-referencing and XREFdb: Implications for the identification and analysis of genes mutated in human disease", Nature Genetics 15 (1997), 339-44. A public database, XREFdb (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/XREFdb/), is open.

A call to bring more ethical issues into anatomy and return of ancestral remains is Jones, DG. & Harris, RJ. "Contending for the dead", Nature 386 (1997), 15-6. A report on the protest of indigenous groups at the September 1996 DNA Sampling conference in Montreal is in GeneWatch 10 (4-5) (Feb 1997), 5, 18-9. Related to the issue of colonization is Nature 386 (1997), 339-40. On modern human origins, Kay, RF. et al. "Anthropoid origins", Science 275 (1997), 797-804; Nature 386 (1997), 337; NS (29 March 1997), 18; AJHG 60 (1997), 755-7, 772-89. The use of DNA markers to determine ethnic affiliation is reviewed in AJHG 60 (1997), 957-64. The technical issues of using ancient DNA are discussed in Nature 386 (1997), 764-5; AJHG 60 (1997), 1001-2.

Harrington, JJ. et al. "Formation of de novo centromeres and construction of first-generation human artificial microchromosomes", Nature Genetics 15 (1997), 345-55, 333-4. They combined long synthetic arrays of alpha satellite DNA with telomeric DNA and genomic DNA to generate artificial chromosomes in human HT1080 cells. They are mitotically and cytogenetically stable in the absence of selection for up to six months in culture, bind centromere proteins specific for active centromeres, and are estimated to be 6-10 megabases in size, approximately one-fifth to one- tenth the size of endogenous human chromosomes. A human gene mutation database is reviewed in TIG 13 (1997), 121-2.

A list of complete genomes mapped on the Japan KEGG Pathways as of February 1997 included the following species (Genome Size in nucleotides; Protein Genes; RNA Genes; Total Enzymes; Mapped Enzymes): Escherichia coli 4,638,858; 4,285; 106; 863; 642; Haemophilus influenzae 1,830,135; 1,717; 74; 446; 335; Mycoplasma genitalium 580,073; 467; 36; 140; 107; Mycoplasma pneumoniae 816,394; 678; 33; 152; 118 ; Methanococcus jannaschii 1,664,977; 1,680; 43; 280; 229 ; Synechocystis sp. 3,573,470; 3,168; 49; 602; 472; Saccharomyces cerevisiae 12,069,313; 6,131; 262; 745; 547. A review of the results of organelle genome loss is Science 275 (1997), 790-1. High resolution maps for human chromosomes X and 7 with markers not more than 100kb gaps have been published, GEN (1 April 1997), 1, 18; Genome Research (March 1997), 1-14.

A factory for sequencing DNA at 20 million base pairs a year is going to be built in the San Francisco area by the US Dept. Energy, Science 275 (1997), 1573. In general on the expanding range of sequencing techniques, GEN (1 April 1997), 1, 13, 35. A project to systematically identifying novel expressed sequence tag (EST) sequences that are highly related to genes in model organisms and map them to positions on the mouse and human maps is described in Bassett, DE. et al. "Genome cross-referencing and XREFdb: Implications for the identification and analysis of genes mutated in human disease", Nature Genetics 15 (1997), 339-44. A public database, XREFdb (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/XREFdb/), is open.

Comments on the roles of HUGO and HUGO Code of Conduct are in Politics & Life Sciences 16 (1997), 127-9. Sequencers and HUGO are calling for faster data release (see also Patent section), Science 276 (1997), 1189-90. TIGR has opened access to sequence from 11 microorganisms, including those which cause tuberculosis, cholera and malaria, Nature 388 (1997), 11. Germany has been also told to accelerate release, Nature 387 (1997), 111; and a clause in the Genome Project grants that would have given industrial collaborators 3 months exclusive access to sequence data has been dropped due to public opposition, Science 276 (1997), 1323.

A map with spacing of 75,000 base pairs of the human X chromosome has been released, Genome Research (March 1997), Science 276 (1997), 41. The yeast genome directory has been published by Nature 387 (1997), 459-62, as a supplement. On bioinformatics, Science 276 (1997), 1724-5, 1862-3. More on human artificial chromosomes is NatGen 15 (1997), 333-5, 345-55; Science 276 (1997), 38-9. The future of genomic medicine is discussed in Lancet 349 (1997), 1228. Funding for malaria genome sequencing is discussed in Nature 387 (1997), 647.

On genome research in Europe a conference review is GEN (15 June 1997), 1, 12, 41. A consortium of Millennium Pharmaceuticals, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Affymetrix are forming a US$8 million project for 5 years genome research at the Whitehead Institute/MIT Center for Genome Research, EBN 245 (1997), 6; Science 276 (1997), 891.

Sequencing of a 536kb plasmid of Rhizobium has found that it contains a different range of genes than that found in the genomes of bacteria, Freiburg, C. et al. "Molecular basis of symbiosis between Rhizobium and legumes", Nature 387 (1997), 394-401, 352-4. The plasmids contain more adaptive genes, and in this case are linked to nodule formation and nitrogen fixation.

Human history is discussed in light of a new 800,000 year old Spanish fossil which may have bee an originator of both modern humans and Neanderthals, Science 276 (1997), 355-6, 754-5, 1331-3; NS (7 June), 16; Supplement 1-4; SA (June 1997), 74-9; July 1997), 21-2. On phylogenetics, Science 276 (1997), 227-32. A second bacteria which keeps its DNA enclosed in a pirellulosome membrane has been identified, NS (17 May), 19. An ancient mitochondrian DNA has been found that resembles a eubacterial genome has also been found, Nature 387 (1997), 484-5, 493-7. Ancestral DNA age is discussed in Nature 388 (1997), 143.

A new journal is Ayaangwaamizin: The International Journal of Indigenous Philosophy. The purpose of Ayaangwaamizin is to provide a forum for dialogue on Indigenous thought. The title chosen for the Journal, Ayaangwaamizin, is drawn from the Anishnabe language. Translated literally, it is usually read as "to go carefully," "to tread carefully." Some of the papers in vol. 1(1) (Spring 1997), include: Cordova VF. "EcoIndian: A Response to J. Baird Callicott", pp. 31-44; Driben P. et al. "No Killing Ground: Aboriginal Law Governing the Killing of Wildlife Among the Cree and Ojibwa of Northern Ontario, pp. 91-107. The International Journal of Indigenous Philosophy will be published semi-annually. Subscription rates for one volume (two issues) are: Individuals: $33 in Canadian funds, Institutions: $53 in Canadian funds; Add $13 in Canadian funds for overseas subscriptions. Payable by Master Card, Visa, American Express, Money Order, to Lakehead University Bookstore, 955 Oliver Road,Thunder Bay, Ontario, P7B 5E1 CANADA (E-Mail: bookstr@lakeheadu.ca).

TIGR and HGS have separated, GEN 17(July 1997), 39; NS (5 July 1997), 15; Science 276 (1997), 1959. Human Genome Sciences (HGS) reportedly threatened to get a court injunction to prevent The Institute for Genome Research (TIGR) from going to press with the sequence of the H. influenzae genome, an illustration of the growing disputes which lead to a split. HGS pockets the $38 million it still owed TIGR over the next five and one half years, retains its rights to patent any data TIGR has generated to date, and secures a noncompete agreement on the 10 therapeutic proteins it is presently developing. Other organizations that were funding non-HGS research at TIGR may have also wanted intellectual property rights for the expressed sequence tags (ESTs)-short sequences that uniquely identify full-length genes- they had funded. Venter says that he is not interested in the patenting of strategic ESTs. However, the US Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) said since January 1997, the PTO has been asking inventors who hold the 350 patent applications containing approximately 500,000 ESTs to select 10 ESTs in each of their applications for PTO review. The PTO will then review these 10 ESTs based on the approximate $1,000 filing fee they initially paid, NatBio 15 (1997), 693.

If the full-length sequence of a gene is determined and its function is established, and a patent granted to the inventor, a company that wants to develop that gene into a license will have to either cross-license or to pay a royalty to all holders of patents for ESTs whose sequences are contained in that gene. See the debate on EST patents in the Patents section above. The National Academy of Sciences has also stated it is opposed, Science 277 (1997), 41. The NIH received a 6% increase in the budget for 1998, and a 12% increase for the HGP, Nature 388 (1997), 316. The DOE is to open another sequence laboratory in San Francisco area, Nature 388 (1997), 507.

The analysis of an extinct DNA suggests that Neandertals were not contributors of mitochondrial DNA to modern Homo sapiens, Krings, M. et al. "Neandertal DNA sequences and the origin of modern humans", Cell 90 (1997), 19-30, 1-3; Science 277 (1997), 176-8; Nature 388 (1997), 225-6. A review on the methods to ensure no contamination of ancient DNA is NatBio 15 (1997), 855-8. A law court has given scientists a chance to examine a 9300 old human specimen taken by the Army, Science 277 (1997), 173. On human origins and society, PNAS 94 (1997), 3100-3; Science 276 (1997), 1816-7: Lancet 350 (1997), 75. A 140 million year old dinosaur embryo has been found in Portugal, Science 277 (1997), 41. Proteins have been extracted from T.rex bones, NS (21 June 1997), 16; (26 July), 3.

The complete DNA sequence of Bacillus subtilis has been finished, 4.2 million bases, Science 277 (1997), 478; Nature 388 (1997), 318 <http://www.pasteur.fr/Bio/SubtiList.html>. It has 4000 genes. Another sequence is Tomb, JF. et al. "The complete genome sequence of the gastric pathogen Helicobacter pylori", Nature 388 (1997), 539-47. There are now 10 microorganisms that have been sequenced. On Archaeal genomics, Cell 89 (1997), 991-4. The chloroplast genome from Chlorella vulgaris is in PNAS 94 (1997), 5967-72. On parallel genomics, Science 276 (1997), 1887-8, 277 (1997), 393-4. The US is including corn, rice and wheat in plant genome project, Science 276 (1997), 1960-2, 277 (1997), 169; Nature 388 (1997), 312.

On German genomics, NatBio 15 (1997), 707; industry has agreed to waive any exclusive access period, Nature 388 (1997), 409. There have been reports that industry-linked groups, and geneticists have hoarded genome data, NatBio 15 (1997), 504. Canada is seeking ways to continue its genome project, Science 277 (1997), 303. A series of papers on genetics and the origin of species are in PNAS 94 (July 1997), 7691-7803. On molecular analysis, PNAS 94 (1997), 5506-7. There is progress in efforts to make an artificial human chromosome, Science 277 (1997), 197.

A report on the HUGO Ethics Committee meeting of 1996 is in HUGO Pacific Genome Newsletter 3 (1, Feb. 1997), 6-7. A description of the ELSI program of the US HGP is KIEJ 7 (1997), 291-8. A positive review of a Eubios book, Protection of the human genome and scientific responsibility is in Nursing Ethics 4 (1997), 436-7. A less positive one is in JME 23 (1997), 331-2. On the genome project and patents, Sivaramjani TR. & Brahmachari, SK, "Human genome studies and intellectual property rights: Whither national interest?", Current Science 72 (1997), 708-16.

A general book review on the progress in medicine from genetics, NEJM 337 (1997), 718. The benefits of the full sequence of Helicobacter pylori are summed up in BMJ 315 (1997), 383; and of E. coli sequence, Nature 389 (1997), 120-1; Blattner, FR. et al. "The complete genome sequence of Escherichia coli K-12", Science 277 (1997), 1453-74; 1432-4. A project to find the minimum number of genes needed for a cell to live is underway, NS (16 Aug. 1997), 30-3. A review of bioinformatics is Nature 389 (1997), 417-22. France is setting up a genomics centre for study of complex diseases, Nature 389 (1997), 10. Drug companies are supporting moves to link genetic databases and unify them, Science 277 (1997), 902. Methods to make genetic maps are reviewed in NatMed 3 (1997), 1046-8. On genomic stability and DNA repair, Nature 389 (1997), 829-30; and the potential of differentiated cells, Science 277 (1997), 1056. A review of centromeric DNAs is Human Genetics 100 (1997), 291-304. On progress in genomics, Nature Biotechnology 15 (1997), 923.

On human genetic evolution, Nature 388 (1997), 638; and linguistic studies, Nature 389 (1997), 544-6. A review of a meeting on model organisms is Science 277 (1997), 1604. Letters on Neanderthal genetics are in Science 277 (1997), 1021-4; and on their possible use of music, SA (Sept. 1997), 28-9. On the corn genome, Science 277 (1997), 884-6.

The same National Research Council (USA) report on the HGDP has met with various reviews, depending on whether one is a supporter or critic, and both emphasizing the aspects that are consistent with their viewpoint. This is similar to the receipt of the UNESCO IBC report (see Eubios website). Critical views of the HGDP include GenEthics News (Oct/Nov 1997), 1-2; Lancet 350 (1997), 1306; and positive views in Science 278 (1997), 568; Nature 390 (1997), 221. The NRC called for oversight by an intergovernmental organization, which is what had been suggested by UNESCO IBC, but has been delayed in the absence of funding. A review of DNA variation and the future of human genetics is NatBio 16 (1998), 33-9. Y-chromosome analysis shows that Adam was African, Science 278 (1997), 675-80, 804-5. An editorial on DNA variation and language affinities is AJHG 61 (1997), 1011-4. On population genetics, NatGen 17 (1997), 371-3; and a project to look for environmental health variation, Science 278 (1997), 569-70. Comments on Neanderthal DNA are in Science 278 (1997), 2041; Nature 390 (1997), 917-8; and on human evolution, Nature 390 (1997), 120-1; Science 278 (1997), 2134-6. On dinosaur collecting and rights, SA (Dec 1997), 18; NS (18 Oct 1997), 42-3; Science 277 (1997), 1767.

Further genomes have been sequenced, including Bacillus subtilis, Nature 390 (1997), 249-56; Archaeoglobus fulgidus, Nature 390 (1997), 364-70; Borrelia burgdorferi, Nature 390 (1997), 580-6, 553-4; and reviews are Science 278 (1997), 555, 631-8, 2042; Nature 390 (1997), 114-5, 237-8, 343; NatMed 3 (1997), 1076-8; PNAS 94 (1997), 12751-3. On the progress to make better genetic maps, Science 278 (1997), 2046-8. Plant genome research will be supported by Monsanto's agreement with Millenium, Nature 390 (1997), 5; and by US NSF projects, Nature 390 (1997), 539. On animal genomes, SA (Nov 1997), 24; Science 278 (1997), 203-5.

A DNA array technology enables an organism's entire complement of genes, to be assessed at one time, and it has been done for yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Wodicka , L. et al. "Genome-wide expression monitoring in Saccharomyces cerevisiae", NatBio 15 (1997), 1359-67; 1343; 1317. This direct and highly parallel approach involves the hybridization of total mRNA populations to a set of four arrays that contain a total of more than 260,000 specifically chosen oligonucleotides synthesized in situ using light-directed combinatorial chemistry. The measurements are quantitative, sensitive, specific, and reproducible. Expression levels ranging from less than 0.1 copies to several hundred copies per cell have been measured for cells grown in rich and minimal media. Nearly 90% of all yeast mRNAs are observed to be present under both conditions, with approximately 50% present at levels between 0.1 and 1 copy per cell. On measuring DNA variation in humans, Science 278 (1997), 601-2, 605-7, 1580-1.

A review of Japanese genome projects is Science 278 (1997), 1700-2; and Canada is opening a large genome sequencing centre, Science 278 (1997), 375. A conference review from TIGR on the speed and cost of genomic sequencing and genomic analysis on computers is GEN 17 (15 Oct 1997), 1, 6, 40. On postgenomic drug discovery, which could be called classical biotechnology, NatBio 15 (1997), 1219-20, 1222, 1253; JAMA 278 (1997), 1282-3. On genome size reduction, Plant Cell 9 (1997), 1900-1.

On bioinformatics, NatBio 15 (1997), 1253-6. Genome Database (GDB), which provides human gene mapping data to human genetics researchers from its base at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, will cease operations by July 31, 1998. GDB's principal funder, the DOE Office of Energy Research, is discontinuing support to focus its informatics resources on the sequencing phase of the Human Genome Project. The servers for continued access to the current copy of GDB will be maintained in Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Computational Bioscience Section (http://compbio.ornl.gov). This will be a static version of the database, and no further development is currently contemplated. (Full GDB termination statement: http://www.gdb.org/shutdown/notice.html).

An interview with Francis Collins, the head of the US genome project, over his Christian faith is SA (Feb. 1998), 28-9.

A discussion of functional genomics and drug discovery is GEN 18 (1 Feb 1998), 1, 10, 26; NEJM 338 (1998), 125-6. On genomics, drugs and developmental biology, NatBio 16 (1998), 129, 209, 211, 243-5; Cantor, CR. "How will the Human Genome Project improve our quality of life?", NatBio 16 (1998), 212-3.

Smithkline Beecham has said it has stopped use of the HGS gene database, as alternatives have now come and it has exhausted searching it, Nature 391 (1998), 621. On ESTs ad comparative genomics, TIG 14 (1998), 4-7. SB and GlaxoWellcome have united genome efforts, NatBio 16 (1998), 228. Monsanto and Millennium Pharmaceuticals are also working on plant genomics together, NatBio 16 (1998), 116+. In India a university dispute has prevented the establishment of a plant genome center, Nature 391 (1998), 424.

The genome of Mycobacterium tuberculosis which causes tuberculosis has been sequenced, Science 279 (1998), 25. On the genome of Helicobacter pylori, a conserved bacterium, NatBio 16 (1998), 216-7. A sequence of 1.9 million bases from Arabidopsis has been finished, Nature 391 (1998), 438-9, 485-8. About 3% of the human genome sequence has been sequenced in databases as contiguous sequences, Science 279 (1998), 36-7; new technology may be needed to speed sequencing even further, Science 279 (1998), 23; TIG 14 (1998), 50-1. Genes that seemed useless may be working in subtle ways, NS (17 Jan. 1998), 7. A linkage map of the canine genome has been made, Genomics 46 (1997), 326-36.

On the HGDP, Science 279 (1998), 14; Cavalli-Sforza, LL. "The DNA revolution in population genetics", TIG 14 (1998), 60-5; and origins of humans, SA (Jan. 1998), 30, 32; TIG 14 (1998), 7-8. Canada has apologized to native people for past abuses, Lancet 351 (1998), 194. A world map of endangered languages is SA (March 1998), 26. An interview with Claude Levi-Strauss is SA (Jan. 1998), 38, 40.

The US DOE Human Genome Program Report of 1997 includes several abstracts describing ELSI projects such as educating judges and developing curriculum, pp.45-57 in Part II. The US ELSI group has developed a core curriculum for what doctors should know about genetics, JAMA 279 (1998), 735-6; NatMed 4 (1998), 379.

Sequencers have endorsed the US policy to release genome data as soon as it is found, Science 279 (1998), 1621. A review of the 13 complete microbial genome sequences that have been published is Nature 392 (1998), 339-42; and a new sequence, Deckert, G. et al. "The complete genome of the hyperthermophilic bacterium Aquifex aeolicus", Nature 392 (1998), 353-8. The results from the Helicobacter pylori genome are reviewed in NEJM 337 (1998), 832-3. A series of papers on plant genetics and genome analysis are around one in PNAS 95 (1998), 1983-2032. In several months Perkin-Elmer Applied Biosystems Division will introduce a 96-lane version of the ABI model 377 DNA sequencer, which should increase speed and lower costs of sequencing and a neural net-based lane tracking system. A method to separate DNA fragments by size has been improved, NS (7 Feb. 1998), 10. On bioinformatics, TIBTECH 16 (1998), 104-7; and the future of the GDB, Science 279 (1998), 1611-2. On the Japanese genome project, Nature 392 (1998), 219. A need for data quality is made in Science 279 (1998), 1115. The genomes of major pathogens will also be made public, NS (14 Feb. 1998), 5.

A paper on prospects of making money from isolated and inbred human populations is NatBio 16 (1998), 337-40. As they say (and as the language may offend!), what is increasingly in dispute is the way that human "resource" is exploited. Ancient island tools suggest Homo erectus was a seafarer, Science 279 (1998), 1635-7. Archaeological evidence suggests that prehistoric North America was often the host to wars, Science 279 (1998), 2038-9. An elaborate city structure has been found in Chihuahua, Mexico, from 3000 years ago, Science 279 (1998), 1661-4. On genetic demography, PNAS 95 (1998), 1961-7.

Ethics comments include Science & Engineering Ethics 4 (1998), 131-4; and a paper asking whether the project is racially representative from the cells used is Jackson, F. "Scientific limitations and ethical ramifications of a non-representative Human Genome Project: African American response", Science & Engineering Ethics 4 (1998), 155-70; see also Dukepoo, FC. "An American Indian Perspective", Science & Engineering Ethics 4 (1998), 171-80. A paper on the HGP is Kirby, M. "Looking forward, looking back", MJA 168 (1998), 393-5.

A comment on whether there is a HGDP is NatGen 18 (1998), 307-8. There are questions on whether India's recent guidelines on use of genetic information and for sampling will protect the gene pool from overseas exploitation is NatMed 4 (1998), 653. A book review on the history of Europe's conflict with tribal people is Nature 393 (1998), 533. Studies of populations and genetic disease are discussed in TIG 14 (1998), 218-9; Science 280 (1998), 1306-7. The old cave paintings in Australia that were claimed to be 100,000 years old have been found to only be 10,000 years - though still a long time longer than European colonizers, Science 280 (1998), 1351. Aboriginal groups have warmed to studies of early Australians, Science 280 (1998), 1342-3. Genetic links between ancient Eurasians and Native Americans are found, so that not only Asians immigrated, Science 280 (1998), 520.

The announcement in May 1998 by Perkin-Elmer (PE, Norwalk, CT) and The Institute for Genomic Research (TIGR, Rockville, MD) of the formation of a new commercial venture to "substantially" sequence the human genome in three years has been met with some skepticism both from competing commercial operations and those involved with the publicly funded genome efforts, NatBio 16 (1998), 491, 610; GenEng News 18 (1 June 1998), 1, 16, 50; Nature 393 (1998), 101; NS (23 May 1998), 4; Economist (16 May 1998), 95-6; Time (29 June 1998), 45; Lancet 351 (1998), 1566: BMJ 316 (1998), 1558; and public funded efforts will also increase investment, Science 280 (1998), 994-5, 1185, 1515; JAMA 279 (1998), 1933-5; Nature 393 (1998), 195, 201, 399, 722. See the paper Venter, JC. et al. "Shotgun sequencing of the human genome", Science 280 (1998), 1450-2; also pp. 814-7. The French GeneScope center will also move to sequence more of the human genome, Science 280 (1998), 30-1.

More than 1.3 million ESTs corresponding to mouse and human genes are now available and accessible through the EST division of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (Bethesda, MD, USA), NatBio 16 (1998), 519. On development of pharmacogenomics, NatBio 16 (1998), 492; BMJ 316 (1998), 1930; NS (21 March 1998), 18-9; and bioinformatics NatBio 16 (1998), 625-7; PNAS 95 (1998), 5848. Private money will supplement the NIH and government money in improving public genome databases, Science 280 (1998), 667. On a method for mapping complex traits, two point linkage analysis, AJMG 78 (1998), 366-83. A meeting report on bioinformatics, TIBTECH 16 (1998), 104-7. The construction of YAC-based mammalian artificial chromosomes is discussed in NatBio 16 (1998), 431-9.

A review of the genome sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis is Cole, ST. et al. "Deciphering the biology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from the complete genome sequence", Nature 393 (1998), 537-44; 515-6; Lancet 351 (1998), 1789. A new genetic map is Knapik, EW. et al. "A microsatellite genetic linkage map for zebrafish (Danio rerio), NatGen 18 (1998), 338-43; 345-9; 301-3. The genomics of a hot water bacteria, Aquifex aeolicus is discussed in NatGen 19 (1998), 4-6. A review of the L1 retrotransposon is NatGen 19 (1998), 19-24. The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is being sequenced by TIGR-Perkin-Elmer, Nature 393 (1998), 296. A discussion of a plant genome initiative is reviewed in The Plant Cell 10 (1998), 488-93. On genetics research in cat, Science 280 (1998), 1841; and evolution, Science 280 (1998), 672-4; PNAS 95 (1998), 5849-56. On the future of HUGO, NatGen 19 (1998), 1-2, 113-4. The HGP is being applied to cardiovascular research, Lancet 351 (1998), 1035.

A role for HUGO is discussed in NatGen 19 (1998), 222. A report on the TIGR and Craig Venter project to sequence the human genome in 3 years is SA (August 1998), 30-1; TIG 14 (1998), 259-60; Science News 153 (1998), 334-5. The company will be called Celera Genomics Corporation, Nature 394 (1998), 714. The San Diego company Incyte Pharmaceuticals has announced a 2 year US$200 million project to identify protein coding regions of the genome, Science 281 (1998), 1121. Canada has proposed another genome project, with C$175 million a year by many ministries, Science 281 (1998), 20-1; Lancet 352 (1998), 44. A review of genomics and the world economy is Science 281 (1998), 925-6. China is accelerating research into genome projects, Nature 394 (1998), 109.

The sequence of the bacteria causing syphilis has been found, Fraser, CM. et al. "Complete genome sequence of Treponema pallidum, the syphilis spirochete", Science 281 (1998), 375-87, 324-5; JAMA 280 (1998), 594 Genome models are discussed in NS (18 July 1998), 36-9. The lessons for tuberculosis from the genome sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis are helping understand the disease, Science News 153 (1998), 375. On the history of the genetic code, Science 281 (1998), 329-31. On analysis of HGR data, EN (1 Sept. 1998), 32, 54, 56. The genes of Jewish priests are discussed in Nature 394 (1998), 138-9.

A review is Schork, NJ. et al. "The future of genetic epidemiology", TIG 14 (1998), 266-71. A study of genetic diversity in lipase gene is NatGen 19 (1998), 233-40; and in Icelandic persons considering privacy, Science 281 (1998), 890-1. A book review on cross-cultural genetics is AJHG 63 (1998), 289-90. Human evolution is discussed in NS (11 July 1998), 34-9; Science 281 (1998), 72-5. A review of an exhibit on Maori at the British Museum that is sensitive to the wishes of the Maori people is Lancet 352 (1998), 585-6. A study of mitochondrial and nuclear genes in the Pacific Islands suggests an initial remote Oceania settlement followed with male-based gene flow to near Oceania, AJHG 63 (1998), 613-24. A simplified representation of ethnic populations is SA (Sept. 1998), 30. Fossil faeces are providing more ancient DNA than amber, Science 281 (1998), 319-20, 402+.

A conference report from the 4th International Meeting on the Human Genome Project, held in Valencia, Spain, 190-21 Oct. 1998 is Lancet 352 (1998), 1448. D.M. was among a list of two dozen invitees who joined in a discussion of genetic technology, gene therapy, cloning and a variety of issues arising from the completion of the genome project. Ian Wilmut and Craig Venter were honoured by the Valencian government for their work, and both made a number of statements. Venter predicted that within 5 years individual genotypes will be used for drug design and therapy. Researchers working on gene therapy however, were still seeking for reliable long term expression of genes in patients.

Issue 7 of Law and the Human Genome Review (1997), pp. 1-250, includes several papers on the UN Declaration on the Protection of the Human Genome, and on the European Convention (see also this issue EJAIB by Oszunay). A document from the US ELSI project on genetic testing can be downloaded from <www.pbs.org/gene>. On general ELSI issues, NatGen 20 (1998),15-7.

The government-funded HGP should be finished by 2003, and a general sequence is now called for by 2001, a similar year to when Celera should have finished the sequence, BMJ 317 (1998), 834; Science 281 (1998), 1774-5; 282 (1998), 53-4; Nature 395 (1998), 207. NIH (Bethesda, MD) director Francis Collins has announced a new five-year plan for the next phase of the Human Genome Project (HGP), NatBio16 (1998), 1004. As well as focusing on functional genomics, the plan accelerates current HGP sequencing efforts to match industry's 2001 target date for a working or shotgun human genome sequence, with completion of its full sequence by 2003. One of the goals of Genome II is the creation of a genome-wide map of 100,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). This puts the public genome program in competition with another leading genomics company, Genset (Paris), which plans to produce a 60,000 "bi-allelic" SNP map. A further part of the Human Genome Project is to look at the three million differences in the genetic code that identify each person, NatBio16 (1998), 793; Science 281 (1998), 1787-9. Incyte intends to invest over the next two years US$200 million in an effort to sequence the protein-coding regions of the human genome and "gather SNP data for every human gene." A group at Incyte is planning to release a complete gene map within a year, including single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs), and it will acquire intellectual property rights from Hexagen and Life-Seq, which includes 3 million DNA sequences at present, GEN (15 Sept. 1998), 6, 23.

The Icelandic parliament (Althingi) considered a bill to create a nation-wide computerized database of health records in Iceland. If established, the database would provide a platform for the expansion of the population genetics-based business of deCODE Genetics, NatBio16 (1998), 896; NatGen 20 (1998), 99-101. An Apache tribe has also signed an agreement with geneticists, via informed consent, NS (29 August 1998), 5. A discussion of the analysis of the analysis of the frozen Iceman is NS (10 Oct. 1998), 40-3. A legal analysis of indigenous peoples in international law is Amer. J. Int. Law 92 (1998), 414-57. A human skeleton from 55,000 years ago in Egypt is hoped to be a missing link in the spread of modern human beings out of Africa, NS (10 Oct. 1998), 12. Female gene flow may distinguish Hindu castes, Nature 395 (1998), 651. A genetic history of China is emerging from many genetic studies, Nature 395 (1998), 636-8.

The Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes and the Montana/Wyoming Area Indian Health Board hosted a conference on North American Genetic Research and Native Peoples in Polson, Montana at the Kwataqnuk Resort on October 11-12, 1998. For details, Debra Harry, Indigenous Peoples Coalition Against Biopiracy, PO Box 72, Nixon, NV 89424, USA; Email: dharry@niec.net <http://www.niec.net/ipcb>

Genetic maps are being made for better websites, Nature 395 (1998), 842-3. Genetic variation is being used for drug development, Science 281 (1998), 1820-1; SA (Oct. 1998), 17-8; so-called pharmacogenomics, NatBio16 (1998), 885. On plant genomics, NatGen 20 (1998), 6-7; and general improvements on high output biology, NatGen 20 (1998), 5-6.

Iceland is selling exclusive rights to one company for genetic studies over the next 12 years, Nature 396 (1998), 395; NS (5 Dec. 1998), 3, 20-1; Science 282 (1998), 859, 1993. There is controversy over the danger to privacy and misuse of the information. More comments on the Iceland genetic studies deal are in GenEthics News 26 (Oct/Nov 1998), 5. In fact a study on Iceland breast cancer families has questioned the risks of BRCA1 and BRCA2, BMJ 317 (1998), 1174. A paper on the ethical implications of genomic research is Kirby, M. "Meeting our friend, the genome", Law and the Human Genome Review 8 (1998), 60-70. The key points of the HUGO statement on DNA sampling (see earlier EJAIB 8 (1998)) are reproduced in BME 142 (1998), 5. Also on ethical issues of the HGP, JAMA 280 (1998), 1532-8.

The US DOE and Celera have not yet agreed on a memorandum of understanding on the competing efforts to sequence the human genome, Nature 397 (1998), 93; NS (2 Jan. 1999), 34-5. A report on the new goals of the US government project is Collins, FS. et al. "New goals for the US Human Genome Project: 1998-2003", Science 282 (1998), 682-9. It includes new goals for the ELSI program, which will be looking at the implications of human genetic variation, integration of clinical genetic services, use of genetics outside of clinics, looking at new perspectives in philosophy, theology and ethics, and look at socioeconomic, ethnic and racial factors.

The 97 Mb genome sequence of the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has been completed by a consortium, The C. elegans Sequencing Consortium, "Genome sequence of the nematode C. elegans: A platform for investigating biology", Science 282 (1998), 2012-8; also pp. 1972-4; 2011-2050; 2159; Nature 396 (1998), 620-1; NS (5 Dec. 1998), 33-5. The Genome Research Center of RIKEN in Japan has released a mouse DNA encyclopedia of 20,000 ESTs, Nature 397 (1999), 98-9. In general on the use of molecular libraries, Immunology Today 19 (1998), 524-7. In 1998 the Trends journals published a 32 page guide to bioinformatics; also Science 282 (1998), 635-6. A physical map of 30,000 human genes has been assembled, Science 282 (1998), 744-6.

The complete sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii is important as the agent of typhus, and also it may be a relative of a possible mitochondrial precursor, Andersson, SGE. "The genome sequence of Rickettsia prowazekii and the origin of mitochondria", Science 282 (1998), 1126-32; Lancet 352 (1998), 1604; Science 282 (1998), 1243. A hydrogenosome has a genome, Nature 396 (1998), 527-8; and they produce hydrogen. A 1Mb organism genome is in Stephens, RS. "Genome sequence of an obligate intracellular pathogen of humans: Chlamydia trachomatis", Science 282 (1998), 754-9; pp. 638-9; Science News 154 (1998), 261. There was 6-7% genetic difference in two bacteria of the species Helicobacter pylori, Nature 397 (1999), 176-80. A review of the knowledge of the 53 strains of rubella virus so far sequenced is Lancet 352 (1998), 1799. In general on microbial genome sequencing, BMJ 317 (1998), 1568-71.

A series of papers on genomics are in Science 282 (1998), 651-89. On the plasticity of genomes, Nature 396 (1998), 522-3; and plant genomics, Plant Cell 10 (1998), 1771; Science 282 (1998), 656-9; and a genome map of Arabidopsis thaliana is in Science 282 (1998), 662-81.

A book review of Crawford, MH. The Origins of Native Americans: Evidence from Anthropological Genetics (Cambridge University Press, 1998) is AJHG 63 (1998), 1566. On the origins of Pacific Island and Asian populations, PNAS 95 (1998), 9047-52; TIG 14 (1998), 445. Asian DNA origins are discussed in Science News 154 (1998), 212. There is genetic evidence for a higher female migration rate in humans, NatGen 20 (1998), 278-80, 219-20. On isolated populations and genetics, Science 282 (1998), 1658-9. A book review of Eve Spoke is NS (5 Dec. 1998), 46-7. DNA analysis has supported the biblical story of Jewish priesthood, Science News 154 (1998), 218-9.

Several papers on ELSI issues of HGP are in Human Genome News 10 (Feb 1999), 13-5; Assia 3 (No. 2, 1998), 30-33; CQHE 8 (1999), 226-37. Russian genome scientists have adopted an ethical statement, Nature 398 (1999), 362. A report on Indian genomics is Science 283 (1999), 309.

A review of Human Genome Sciences is GEN (1 March 1999), 22. In general on the expected knowledge form the HGP, GEN (15 Feb. 1999), 11, 26, 36: and the five stages of the Human Genome Project, NatBio 17 (1999), 112. In general on genomics, BMJ 318 (1999), 341-2; AJHG 66 (1999), 1-13. On genome funding, Science 283 (1999), 610-1.

The release of a working draft of the human genome is expected in February 2000 by a UK/US collaboration, with the final sequence by 2003; Lancet 353 (1999), 1078; Science 283 (1999), 1822-3. A review of the methods is Science 283 (1999), 1867-8. A review is Giaver, G. et al. "Genomic profiling of drug sensitivities via induced haploinsufficiency", NatGen 21 (1999), 278-83. On sequence analysis, Science 283 (1999), 652-3.

The sequence of Deinococcus radiodurans has been released, and it is 3 million bases long and similar to other bacteria despite its ability to survive huge radiation doses, Science 283 (1999), 1105-6. A comparison of two complete genome sequences of H. pylori is discussed in GEN (1 Jan. 1999), 17, 36. Genetic and physical maps of Bacillus subtilis are in Genetics 151 (1999), 1239-44. On functional genomics, GEN (1 Feb. 1999), 1, 3, 31. More comments on the completion of the C. elegans genome sequence is Human Genome News 10 (Feb 1999), 8; TIG 15 (1999), 51-8; Science News 154 (1998), 372.

Celera has announced it will finish the rice genome in 6 weeks [by next issue?!], shocking the rice genome project in Japan and other countries, Nature 398 (1999), 543, 545. Plant genomics is developing rapidly, TIG 15 (1999), 85-7. Japan is also attempting to sequence and patent disease-related genes, Nature 398 (1999), 644; while aother international consortium is planning a free SNP map of the genome, Nature 398 (1999), 545-6. The European Bioinformatics Institute is making its expression gene data open, Nature 398 (1999), 646. Drosophila researchers have signed an agreement with Celera, Science 283 (1999), 767. An encyclopedia of mouse genes is reported in NatGen 21 (1999), 191-95; and an action plan for mouse genomics is in NatGen 21 (1999), 73-5.

Population genetics is discussed in PNAS 96 (1999), 1170-2; AJHG 66 (1999), 31-9. A study of the origin of native Americans from Lake Baikal area suggested by Y chromosome studies is AJHG 66 (1999), 817-31; Science 283 (1999), 1439-40. On Japanese genetic roots, Science 283 (1999), 1426-7. A review of making family trees from gene families is NatGen 21 (1999), 66-7; also Science 283 (1999), 2027-8; Nature 398 (1999), 283-4. Genome phylogeny can also be based on gene content, NatGen 21 (1999), 108-10.

A draft complete human DNA sequence will be ready by spring 2000, Science 284 (1999), 1439-40. The Wellcome Trust and several companies are funding a SNP Consortium which will create a database on genetic markers, BMJ 318 (1999), 1093; Science 284 (1999), 406-7; NS (17 April 1999), 12. Population genetics is discussed in Science 284 (1999), 267-8; AJHG 64 (1999), 1473-4; NatGen 22 (1999), 78-81. On the sequencing of viral genomes, NatMed 5 (1999), 484-5. A radiation hybrid map of the rat genome with 5255 markers is published in NatGen 22 (1999), 3-4, 27-36. Japan is attempting to catch up with the rapid advances in the genome project, Nature 399 (1999), 96; and on the falling stock value of the French genome company Genset, Nature 399 (1999), 185-6.

The distribution of haplotypes from a chromosome 21 region have been used to trace multiple prehistoric human migrations, PNAS 96 (1999), 3796-800. The proceedings of a 1996 International Symposium have been published, Omoto, K., ed., Interdisciplinary Perspectives on the Origins of the Japanese (International Research Center for Japanese Studies, No. 11-B, 1999, 349pp.). It includes various methods including DNA studies. An Inca mummy that is 500 years old is being used for research, Science 284 (1999), 427. The interaction between environment and behaviour of 2.5 million year old Bouri hominids is discussed in Science 284 (1999), 625+. A paper on the comparison that will be made between genes of humans and other great apes is NS (15 May 1999), 26-30. On the origin of life, Nature 399 (1999), 217-8.

A paper on the HGDP is Dodson, M. & Williamson, R. "Indigenous peoples and the morality of the human genome diversity project", JME 25 (1999), 204-8. Several papers on ethical issues in anthropology and archaeology are in Science and Engineering Ethics 5 (July 1999), 307-374.

A book review on the ethics of the genome project is in HCR 29 (July-August 1999), 40-2. A retrospective view on the ELSI projects of the US DOE is onlineat the doe site. The Shattuck lecture is Collins, FS. "Medical and societal consequences of the Human Genome Project", NEJM 341 (1999), 28-37.

Japan has double genome project funds over 5 years, Nature 400 (1999), 389. A French report has called for more genetics research, Nature 400 (1999), 199. The Wellcome Trust proposal to develop the Hinxton, Camridgeshire site with biotech companies has been rejected with the verdict that new companies should be in the areas science parks not in the countryside, Nature 400 (1999), 803. In the US commercial firms have won government sequencing funds, Science 285 (1999), 310. A discussion of how Celera's strategy may make money is in Science 284 (1999), 1906-9. Pharmacogenomics is discussed in GEN 19 (15 June 1999), 17, 19, 21, 22, 34, 49.

In general on psychopharmacogenetics, AJHG 65 (1999), 606-10; and drugs from the genome, Science 285 (1999), 998-1001.

Less than 3 months after the start of the SNP Consortium, more than 1400 SNPs have been identified in 181 genes thought to influence disease susceptibility, NatGen 22 (1999), 231-8; 239-47; Lancet 354 (1999), 49; Science 285 (1999), 21. SNP ancestral alleles are being detected by oligonucleotide arrays, NatGen 22 (1999), 164+. On the use of arrays, NatGen 22 (1999), 211-2. The prospects for whole-genome linkage disequilibrium mapping of common disease genes is reviewed in NatGen 22 (1999), 139+. Sequencing technology using bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) is discussed in PNAS 96 (1999), 9739-44. Japan is launching a national SNP program based on at least 50 Japanese personsf DNA, Nature 400 (1999), 6.

There is stiff competition over the completion of the Drosophila genome project this year, Nature 400 (1999), 699. The complete sequence of chromosome 3 of Plasmodium falciparum has been released, Nature 400 (1999), 532-8. The malarial mosquito is being targetted also, Science 285 (1999), 508-9. The Dictyostelium genome project is reviewed in TIG 15 (1999), 294-7. What we can learn from slime mould for disease is discussed in AJHG 65 (1999), 25-30. The question why organelles have retained geomes is discussed in TIG 15 (1999), 364-70. A YAC-based physical map of the mouse genome is in NatGen 22 (1999), 388-93. A radiation hybrid map of the mouse genome is reported in NatGen 22 (1999), 384-7. A zA map for sequence analysis of Arabidopsis thaliana genome is in NatGen 22 (1999), 265-70. Functional characterization of the S. cerevisiae genome by gene deletion and parallel analysis is reported in Science 285 (1999), 901-6. Informatics is discussed in Science 285 (1999), 1226-8. Radiation hybrid mapping of the zebra fish genome is reported in PNAS 96 (1999), 9745-50. On the anniversary of the discovery of the genetic code, Nature 401 (1999), 19.

Genomes have revealed kinship between hippos and whales, Science 284 (1999), 2081. On evolutionary genetics, Science 285 (1999), 192-3. Neanderthal/Homo sapien connections have been reexamined, NS (19 June 1999), 42-6; Science 285 (1999), 31-3. On human evolution, SA (August 1999), 13-4; Nature 400 (1999), 219-20; Science 285 (1999), 199, 1335-6. Prehistoric bacteria have been revived from buried salt, Science News 155 (1999), 373. A paper on ethics by the director of the US HGP is Collins, F. "The Human Genome Project: Tool of atheistic reductionism or embodiment of the Christian mandate to heal?", Science & Christian Belief 11 (1999), 99-111.

The sequence of human chromosome 22 has been completed in the first draft, and is on-line. The paper is Dunham, I. Et al. "The DNA sequence of human chromosome 22", Nature 402 (1999), 489-95; 445, 447-8, 467-8; Lancet 354 (1999), 1975. The paper was joint between public and private researchers. The next is expected to be chromosome 21, and German and Japanese researchers are leading that effort, Science 286 (1999), 2057-8. Berlin is promoting genomics, Nature 402 (1999), 568. The billionth human genome base was sequenced on 17 November, 1999, Nature 402 (1999), 331. The size distribution of homozygous segments in the genome is reported in AJHG 65 (1999), 1489-92. Analysis of the yeast genome is reported in Nature 402 (1999), 362-3, 413-8. A minimal Mycoplasma genome is discussed in Science 286 (1999), 2165-9.

Functional genomics in the UK has been given more funds, Lancet 354 (1999), 2145; Nature Genetics 23 (1999), 375-6. France has launched a program to gain financial benefits from genomics, Nature 402 (1999), 569. Pharmacogenomics is discussed in BMJ 319 (1999), 1286. A mouse genomic project has been awarded US$21 million for sequencing by the NIH, JAMA 282 (1999), 1805. On bioinformatics, GEN 20 (1 Jan. 2000), 3, 40.

A study of intracellular gene transfer between genomes in legumes is PNAS 96 (1999), 13863-8. Human evolution is discussed in Time (17 Jan. 2000), 40-9; Science 286 (1999), 2054-5; Current Biology 9 (1999), 1331-4. There are scientific concerns over the reburial of unidentified Indian remains in the US under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, Science 286 (1999), 1285. Ice men are discussed in Science 286 (1999), 1843; and analysis of a virus in a Mummy, Science 286 (1999), 2071. In general on evolutionary genetics, Nature 402 (1999), 365-6, 411-3; Science 286 (1999), 1829. The idea of genetic reconstruction of a Mammoth is discussed in Time (1 Nov. 1999), 48-9.

The HGDP has generated much debate, and a further paper on this is Resnik, DB. "The Human Genome Diversity Project: Ethical problems and solutions", Politics & Life Sciences 18 (1999), 15-24. A report from the geographic patterns of mtDNA diversity in Europe is AJHG 66 (2000), 262-78. IBM has joined the SNP Consortium NatBio 18 (2000), 245. As discussed in the business news, genomic companies have been expanding in the stock market, Nature 403 (2000), 4. On German funding problems, Nature 403 (2000), 584.

Celera has claimed 90% of the human genome sequence and 97% of human genes are in its database, BMJ 320 (2000), 206. They are using public databases to try to accelerate the completion of the sequence, Nature 403 (2000), 119. The sequence of chromosome 4 of Arabidopsis thaliana is in Nature 402 (1999), 769-77; and the full sequence of Campobacter jejuni is in Nature 403 (2000), 665-9. The importance of structural genomics for gene function analysis is discussed in NatBio 18 (2000), 283-7. The protein-protein interactions of yeast are reported in Nature 403 (2000), 601-3, 623-7; in C. elegans, Science 287 (2000), 52-3, 116-22; and on proteomics, Nature 403 (2000), 703, 715-20. A review of yeast biochemical genomics is TIG 16 (2000), 49-53. Grass-roots genomics is discussed in Nature Genetics 24 (2000), 5-6; and on evolutionary studies, Science 287 (2000), 605-6. A book review on the Genome is AJHG 66 (2000), 21; and one of Genetic Maps and Human Imagination is NS (29 Jan. 2000), 48. Technologies are reviewed in Science 287 (2000), 675-94. Mouse geneticists have asked for unified mechanisms for exchange, Nature 403 (2000), 236. DNA loss and genome size are discussed in Science 287 (2000), 1060-2.

China has set up a hominid museum, Science 287 (2000), 221. On human evolution, Time (17 Jan. 2000), 40-9; SA (Jan. 2000), 56-62. Archaeology in the Holy Land is discussed in Science 287 (2000), 28-35. The finding of a Roman artefact in South America confirms that Romans had contact with South Americans, NS (Jan. 2000), 7. The question of survival of tribal knowledge is discussed in Science 287 (2000), 44-5. Discussion of the idea of life origins in space is NS (22 Jan. 2000), 3.
A new book from Eubios Ethics Institute is Macer, DRJ., ed., Ethical Challenges as we approach the end of the Human Genome Project, Eubios Ethics Institute 2000(ISBN 0-908897-15-4, 122pp., NZ$30) includes 11 papers from persons in different countries and traditions. An extensive review of the HGP is in Newsweek (10 April 2000), 32-44. A discussion of the future of sequencing DNA at home is Nature 404 (2000), 21. Also on the subject, book reviews of Ridley, M. Genome: The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters (HarperCollins 2000) are Newsweek (28 Feb. 2000), 41; SA (April 2000), 114-5.

;Critics are challenging Celera's claims that it finished the raw DNA sequencing on the human genome sequence, Nature 404 (2000), 691-2; Time (10 April 2000), 45; (17 April 2000), 50; Science 287 (2000), 2136-8. The relationship between the private and public genome projects is discussed in Science 287 (2000), 1723-5; NS (March 2000), 3 (also see Patenting and Business section). Despite attempts to join the Celera and public projects, an alliance did not emerge, Nature 403 (2000), 815-6; 404 (2000), 111, 117, 317. There is an investigation on whether any NSF grants were used to develop the DNA sequencing machines at Caltech that are now sold by Perkin Elmer, Science 287 (2000), 1374-5.

;The Drosophila genome sequence is finished due to a collaboration between UC Berkeley and Celera, Myers, EW. Et al. gA whole genome assembly of Drosophilah, Science 287 (2000), 2196-2204; 1374, 2173-4, 2181-4; Nature 404 (2000), 442-3;Nature Cell Biology 2 (2000), E53-4; Science 287 (2000), 2216-21; NatBio 18 (2000), 365; JAMA 283 (2000), 1554-5; Nature Genetics 24 (2000), 327-8. The worm C. elegans has an Internet site (www.wormbase.org). On comparative genomics, Science 287 (2000), 1777-82, 2204-15; NS (March 2000), 38-41. Genomic searching has led to better understanding of taste, Nature 404 (2000), 552-3.

;The bacteria Neisseria meningitidis A strain and B strains have been sequenced, Science 287 (2000), 1809-15; Lancet 355 (2000), 1163; Nature 404 (2000), 451-2, 502-6. The genome of Caulobacter crescentus has been sequenced, Science 288 (2000), 1572-3. Mouse sequencers are using a shotgun method, Science 287 (2000), 1179-81. A review of untapped resources in microbial genomes is TIBTECH 18 (2000), 14-6. High resolution linkage of the cytogenetic and physical maps of the human genome is reported in Nature Genetics 24 (2000), 339-40.

A review from the SNP consortium is Science 287 (2000), 1898-9. Pharmacogenomics is discussed in BMJ 320 (2000), 987-90; GEN 20 (15 March 2000), 1, 13, 39, 50, 74; PharmaJapan 1694 (24 April 2000), 1-4; Pharmacogenetics 10 (2000), 1-3. A report on functional genomics and the Novartis Genomics Institute is ACUMEN 1 (2000), 30-41. On functional genomics, Nature 404 (2000), 715-8. Proteomics is discussed in GEN 20 (1 April 2000), 15, 34, 49. Music software may be useful for genome sequencing, Nature 404 (2000), 694. On informatics, Science 287 (2000), 1951.

The role of the US Dept. of Energy in the genome project continues, Nature 404 (2000), 4, 222. Genomics is being developed rapidly in East Asia, NatBio 17 (1999), 278-9. Ontario has approved C$74 million for genome projects, Nature 404 (13 April 2000). The UK is planning to establish a partial population genetics database, NatMed. 6 (2000), 359-60.

The question of what linguistics tells us about human evolution is discussed in NS (26 Feb. 2000), 36-40. Irish origins have been mapped using the Y chromosome, Nature 404 (2000), 351. A review of the distribution of human genetic diversity is AJHG 66 (2000), 979-88. Sunny days were the best for preserving ancient DNA in resin, NS (19 Feb. 2000), 23. Stony tools have revealed Homo erectus were making tools at 803,000 years ago from cobbles the result of a meteorite in southern China, Science 287 (2000), 1566-7.

A new book is Grisolia, S. ed., Current Options for the Human Genome Project (Fundacion BBV, 2000, 317pp. ISBN 84-95163-37-6), which includes 25 papers from a Valencia conference in 1998. The US DOE and NIH ELSI programs are separating, Nature 405 (2000), 388.

The genome sequence of Arabidopsis thaliana has been finished, The Arabidopsis Genome Initiative, “Analysis of the genome sequence of the flowering plant Arabidopsis thaliana”, Nature 408 (2000), 796-815, 791-5; Science 290 (2000), 2054-8, 2071; 2105-10; NS (2 Dec. 2000), 36-9; (16 Dec. 2000), 14-5. The genome of E. coli 0157 has an extra 1387 genes compared to the laboratory version, Nature (26 Jan. 2001). The genome sequence of Halobacterium species NRC is in PNAS 97 (2000), 12176-81. A first report of chicken genes and chromosomes is Cytogent. Cell Genet. 90 (2000), 169-218.; Rapid sequencing of mouse genome means it is difficult to deposit the data every 24 hours onto the Internet, Nature 408 (2000), 758-9. Further analysis of the functions of genes in C. elegans is Nature 408 (2000), 325-30, 331-6.

Plans for sequencing of a second Drosophila species genome, of D.pseudoobscura have been announced, Nature 408 (2000), 396. The Wellcome Trust is sequencing zebrafish, Nature 408 (2000), 503; Science 291 (2001), 1671. China and Denmark are teaming up to sequence pig, Science 290 (2000), 913-4. Germany is targeting bacterial genomes, Nature 408 (2000), 632-3; 393. Genomic medicine is discussed in JAMA 284 (2000), 2581-2, 2642; NEJM 343 (2000), 1408-9.

A general paper on community is Davis, DS. “Groups, communities, and contested identites in genetic research”, HCR< 30 (Nov. 2000), 38-44. On use of DNA collections, BMJ 321 (2000), 1146-9. A case of US harvesting of blood samples for genetic research in China is reported in Int. Herald Tribune (21 Dec. 2000). DeCode genetics in Iceland is discussed in GeneWatch 13 (Winter 2000), 4-6; NEJM 343 (2000), 1734-5. They have been reporting some genes, SCRIP 2595 (24 Nov. 2000), 24. The Estonian Parliament is considering a genome law to support the use of genetic data.

The theory of humans developing in Africa has been supported by the most thorough genetic studies of 53 person’s mitochondrial DNA, Ingman, M. et al. “Mitochondrial genome variation and the origin of modern humans”, Nature 408 (2000), 708-13, 652-3; NS (18 Nov. 2000), 48-9. Y-chromosomal diversity in Europe is primarily influenced by geography rather than by language, AJHG 67 (2001), 1526-43; Science 290 (2000), 1080-1. The history of Y-chromosome in Melanasia and Australia is independent, AJHG 67 (2001), 173-90. Columbian maternal and paternal genetic histories may differ, AJHG 67 (2000), 1062-6; as may Europeans, AJHG 67 (2000), 1376-81. Gene mapping is discussed in PNAS 97 (2000), 12389-90. Mitochondrial genes in plants often move to the nucleus, Nature 408 (2000), 302-4. The fate of duplicate genes in evolution is reviewed in Science 290 (2000), 1151-5. The Y chromosome perspective is discussed, Science 290 (2000), 1155-9; Science News 158 (2000), 295.

On use of ancient DNA, AJHG 67 (2000), 287-90; Science 290 (2000), 2065. Japanese researchers are considering to probe Tutankamon’s DNA, Nature 408 (2000), 283.

The publication of the human genome sequence in 8 February issue of Nature and 16 February issue of Science has seen the debate continue between the public project (in Nature) and the Celera project (in Science), Nature 409 (2001), 745, 747-8, 769; Science 291 (2001), 223-4; NatBio 19 (2001), 1; Lancet 357 (2001), 81. On the publications, Nature 409 (2001), 756-7, 813-955;NatGen. 27 (2001), 127-8; Science 291 (2001), 1153+, 1304-51. They are also on-line.

The implications of genomics in society are discussed in Science & Engineering Ethics 8 (2002), 485-96. Craig Venter predicts that individual CDs of human genome sequences will be made for US$500,000 each, NatMed. 8 (2002), 1191. On the use of DNA sequences for research, Science 298 (2002), 948-50. Genome sequences may not always speed up medical research for  some applications, e.g. GM insects, NS (12 Oct., 2002), 3. The protein kinases of the human genome are surveyed in Science 298 (2002), 1912-34. Creation of a new genome and a new life is discussed in NS (30 Nov., 2002), 12-3. Pharmacogenomics is discussed in Scientist (30 Sept. 2002), 44-6. A book review about Rosalin Franklin is in SA (Oct. 2002), 96-7.

Papers on the mouse genome sequence include Nature 420 (2002), 456-9, 509-90; NS (7 Dec., 2002), 5, 12-3. Many disease genes are shared with humans, BMJ 325 (2002), 1319; Lancet 360 (2002), 1844. The genome sequence of sea spuirt, Ciona intestinalis has revealed about 17,000 genes spread in a genome about 5% the total size of the human genome, NS (21 Dec., 2002), 16; Science 298 (2002), 1863-4, 2111-2, 2157-70. The genomes of Fugu and zebrafish are on the Internet, NatGen 32 (2002), 93.  The genome sequence of a human intestinal tract bacteria, Bifidobacterium longum is reported in PNAS 99 (2002), 14422-5. On the Drosophila genome sequence, Scientist (25 Nov. 2002), 30-1. The future of the US NCHGR is discussed in Science 298 (2002), 1694-6. Comparisons of future species to sequence is made in NS (21 Dec., 2002), 44-7. New Zealand has joined the bovine genome sequencing initiative, APBN 6 (2002), 878. On duplicated genes, Nature 421 (2003), 31-2. Proteomics is discussed in Nature 420 (2002), 591.